高考英语语法填空和短文改错探析及解决对策——以2016—2019年高考英语全国卷为例

胥少先，周桂蓉

(1.绵阳师范学院外国语学院，四川绵阳 621000；2.绵阳市丰谷中学，四川绵阳 621000)

一、引言

全国高考英语试卷经历了最初的全国统一试卷，后实行同一大纲，不同教材，分省出题，再到2016年起的相同大纲，自选几类教材，大部分省市区采用全国统一试卷。统一试卷又分为I、II、III卷，供各省市根据自己情况选用。其中2016和2017年的试卷抬头是2016/2017普通高等学校招生全国统一考试(新课标I,II,III)(英语)；2018和2019年的则是2018/2019普通高等学校招生全国统一考试(全国卷I,II,III)(英语)①。从使用全国卷的省份上看，2016年自主命题的省市包括四川、北京、天津、浙江、上海、江苏、山东、海南8个；2017年自主命题的有北京、天津、浙江、上海、江苏、山东、海南7个省市，四川开始使用全国卷III；2018年山东使用全国卷，自主命题只有6省市，西藏放弃卷II，选用卷III；2019和2018年采用全国卷和自主命题卷的省市一样。2016—2019年采用全国命题省市个数依次是23、24、25、25。据如上数据看，全国大部分省市都采用全国卷，使用卷I、II、III趋于稳定。

从2016—2019年全国高考英语试卷构成来看，题型已经稳定，包括听力30分、阅读40分、语言知识运用45分、写作35分。其中语言知识运用包括完型填空和语法填空，写作有改错和写作。这些题型，我们常区分为主观题和客观题，但国外学术界基于试题本身的特征将题型分为选择性题型( Selected-response item formats, SR题型)和建构性题型(constructed-response item formats, CR题型) 。选择性题型即是客观题型，构建性题型就是主观题型。后者是需要考生生成答案而非选择或匹配答案的题型[1]。全国高考英语试卷构建性题型包括语法填空、短文改错和书面表达三个部分。语法填空是1.5*10=15分，短文改错是1*10=10分，书面表达是25*1=25分。本文探究的是语法填空和短文改错。

二、现状分析

对于语法填空和短文改错，从2016年到2019年的文献来看，对短文改错探究得多，对语法填空探究得少，也有对全部构成性题型研究的。年份集中于2016—2018年，2019年的目前没有。有的研究一年，有的是两三年对比研究。有的研究卷I或卷II,有的是几卷对比研究。文献只有一篇硕士论文，其余皆为期刊论文。研究方法有内容效度、建语料库、历时等角度研究，也有直接分析,然后提出解决办法。研究过程多是先对两类题型具体分析，然后提出解决的办法。

解决语法填空的办法包括培养语篇意识，重视基础；强化语用；提高阅读能力；熟记考纲词汇；掌握语法知识，自我校正语法；结合语境和句子，提高学生综合语言能力[2-5]；以学生为中心进行语法教学，注重高频词汇及其惯用搭配；增加生活化语篇输入，重视复合句的分析与改编练习[6]等。解决短文改错的方法有“总—分—总”法、“由小及大”法，即按词汇、句法与语篇的顺序逐层辨别错误并改正[7]；语料库建设开展语篇教学结合改善短文改错教学，引导学生鉴别、归类和分析错误[8]；语法聚焦、搭配聚焦和意义聚焦三者结合[9]；夯实语言基础，强化阅读教学，培养上下文意识[10]；与阅读相结合，提升阅读理解能力；与写作相结合，提升语言纠错能力；翻阅错题，针对强化，忌惑而不解；专题归纳，总结策略，忌多而不思[11]；熟记考纲词汇，掌握短语用法，重视语境教学，指导学生运用恰当的语法填空答题策略，整合语法教学与阅读教学，提高学生的综合语言能力[5]等。

这些文献的研究者多数是高中英语教学一线的资深教育者或教研员，他们对语法填空和短文改错研究多，也比较透彻，归类几乎精确到每一点上，并且在教学中,正如其谈到的解决办法,也几乎都落到实处，对学生进行行之有效的整体教学，取得了很好的教学效果。但这些研究毫不例外地把语法填空和短文改错割裂开来，分别进行探析，忽略了两者之间的共性。解决这两类问题的方法也过于笼统，教师难以把握，学生似是而非，操作性不强。本文试以2016—2019年全国高考英语试卷为蓝本，比较系统地探析语法填空和短文改错的共性和个性，从英汉差异的角度探究解决这两类题的办法，以期对高中英语教学有所裨益。

三、语法填空和短文改错分析

2016—2019年，每年三套不同试卷，共计12套。语法填空和短文改错各12篇，共24篇。本节先分析语法填空，再分析短文改错，最后对两者进行综合分析。

(一)语法填空

语法填空是考语法的综合运用能力，它取代了以前单纯的语法和词法选择填空，把选择性题型变为构建性题型。两项比较，选择题有较高难度，但存在一定偶然性；语法填空难度适中，偶然性减少，多集中在一些基本词法、语法和句法上。这对于成绩中上学生有优势，成绩中下学生则无处下手。下面是对语法填空在各语法现象上的分布进行统计分析(具体见表1)。

表1 2016—2019全国I、II、III卷构建性题型中语法填空

1．字数大约在172—220之间，平均值在196左右。

2．给定词汇7个，留空白3个，唯一例外的是2016(III)，给定词汇6个，空白4个。

修改是指给定单词，要求用正确形式填空；添加是短文空白处填上适当词形。

3．各项语法分布从多到少，平均值是非谓语动词2.2、谓语动词1.7、名词1.3、从句1.0、形容词0.8、副词0.8、冠词0.8、介词0.8、行文逻辑0.4、代词0.3、数词0。非谓语动词和谓语动词每年必考，一般是1到3个；名词除2019(II)外，每年都考；从句除2017(II)外，每年都考；其次是形容词、副词、介词和冠词，所占比重也比较大；行文逻辑和代词偶尔会考。

4．空白处所需填的虚词:

冠词：补填the有5例，补填a的有4例。

介词：常是固定搭配或根据语境来填，有9例。

从句：补填关系词，状语从句2例，同位语从句1例，宾语从句1例，定语从句8例，其中非限制性定语从句出现5例。

行文逻辑：补填并列连词1例，固定搭配2例，比较级2例。

代词：补填2例。

5．给定词汇，根据上下文填上适当形式：

名词：动词变成名词，名词单数变复数，名词变名词后改变词义。

形容词：形容词原级变成比较级和名词变成形容词。

副词：形容词变副词9例，出现1例副词原级变成最高级。

代词：三单主格或宾格变成复数限定属格和主格变宾格2例。

谓语动词：时、体、态和语气每年都会考。给定动词原形，填一般过去时7例，一般现在时5例，现在完成时3例，一般现在时被动语态1例，一般过去时被动语态3例。

非谓语动词：涉及到一般体的主动语态，一般体的被动语态只涉及到不带to的不定式1例。一般体的主动语态主要是V-ing形式12例，不定式11例，而V-ed分词有2例。其中最难的是strength名词-strengthen动词。

(二)短文改错

短文改错是一个传统的构建性题型。以前的短文改错是在短文后标注编号，表明这一行有一处错误，要修改、添加或删除。改革后短文改错只给短文，隔行留空，题目指出短文共有10处错误，要修改、添加或删除，但超过10处的不计数。一行可能有1处、2处或没有错误。但纵观历年考试，短文一般只有6至7行，几乎每行都有错误。由此可见，现行的短文改错难度较大。下面是对短文改错在各语法现象上的分布进行的统计分析(具体见表2)。

1．短文篇幅长度在90—112之间，均值在103个单词左右。要修改8处、删除和添加各1处。

2．考点相对较多的是非谓语动词(1.6)、谓语动词(1.3)、代词(1.3)、名词(1.1)，几乎每年都会考。其次是副词、形容词、冠词、介词、从句、行文逻辑，最少的是数词。

3．添加和删除。

添加：在改错的短文中，缺少不定式符号to的有3例，缺少冠词的有5例，缺少介词的有2例，缺少谓语动词的有1例，缺代词的有1例。

表22016—2019全国I,II,III卷构建性题型中改错题

删除：涉及面广，包括连词、不定时符号to、累赘修饰语、冠词、介词、代词、Be型虚拟式等。这类错误多受汉语的影响。

4．修改。

名词：单数变成复数有8例，复数变成单数有3例，多为不可数名词，名词属格变为通格1例，V-ing变为名词1例。

形容词：名词和形容词相互转换，原级、比较级最高级之间变化，副词变为形容词。

副词：副词和形容词转换, 原级和比较级转换，介词变副词，位置转换，时间转化等。

冠词：出现在添加中，修改主要是定冠词变成不定冠词2例，不定冠词间变化2例。

介词：集中出现在删除和添加中，修改多为固定搭配。

代词： 人称和单复数变化，但格不变，及其它代词误用修改。

数词：只出现2例，基数词变成序数词。

谓语动词： 修改集中在一般过去时变为一般现在时和一般现在时变为一般过去时共12例，及主谓一致以及祈使句。

非谓语动词： 修改主要是该用过去分词和该用现在分词共计13例。该用不带to的不定式及需添加to 的共6例。

从句：关系词误用，宾语从句连接词和状语从句连接词误用。

行文逻辑： 并列连词误用。

(三)语法填空和短文改错综合分析

从以上可以清楚看到，两类构建性题型的各语法现象所占比重几乎一致。非谓语动词、谓语动词和名词是考试重点，其次是副词、从句、形容词、冠词、介词和代词，最少的是行文逻辑和数词。和语法填空比，短文改错中代词和删除作为考点尤为突出，删除涉及面广。

纵观历年的这两类题型来看，语法填空所留空白处集中填冠词、介词、从句的连词和行文逻辑；短文改错的添加和删除，集中在冠词、介词及其它。二者共同之处在于冠词和介词。修改处主要集中在谓语动词、非谓语动词、名词、形容词、副词等实词(具体见表3)。这两类构建性题型的考点，是考查学生的综合能力。从表面上看，似乎无规律可循，但实际是考查学生对英汉差异和汉语对英语的影响的把握程度，还是有一定规律可循的。

表32016—2019全国I,II,III卷构建性题型中语法填空和短文改错

四、解决对策

英语属印欧语系(Indo-European language)，汉语属汉藏语系(Han-Tibetan language)。前者有标记，是标记性语言(Marked language)、综合性语言(Synthetic language)；后者是无标记性语言(Unmarked language)、分析性语言(Analytic language)。英语主谓结构、主次层次明晰，汉语是集字成句、集句成章。简单地讲，英语的语法和词汇扩大是通过单词曲折和前后缀来实现，汉语则需要添加或变更单独词汇来实现。下面将对英语词法、语法和句法逐一探讨。

(一)英语词法

英语词性和词义变化是通过添加前后缀来实现，以增加词汇量，汉语语法是通过添加词汇来实现。这是两个不同语系的典型差别，最易被师生忽略，但却是语法填空和短文改错考试的重点。

词素(Morpheme)是最小的语法单位和最小的语义单位。派生词缀，前缀改变词义，如happy-unhappy；后缀改变词性，如introduce-introduction(见图1)。但也有例外，如sleep-asleep是前缀改变词性，science-scientist是后缀改变词义。词法在高考试卷中主要是考后缀变化，即动词和名词、名词和形容词、形容词和副词之间彼此转换。但也有副词方位和时间转换及形式相似词性或意义不同的误用。而诸如arrive, refuse, propose, survive, withdraw, dismiss等去e加al或直接加al构成名词，discover, master, deliver加y变成名词，还未在高考中出现。不同词性在句子中作不同成分。名词通常作句子主语、动词或介词宾语、表语等；形容词多作定语修饰名词或表语；副词作状语修饰动词、形容词、副词和介词短语。

图1 词素的划分

(1) This switch has decreasedpollution(pollute) in the country's major lakes and reservoirs.

(2) It leads to abelief(believe) that populations are increasing.

(3) For tourists like me, pandas are its topattraction(attract).

(4) You can do exercises tostrengthen(strength) your leg muscles.

(5) They also shared with us manytraditional(tradition) stories about Hawaii.

(6) The key to his Success ishonesty(honest).

(7)Immediately(Immediate), I raised my hand.

(8) A global population of polar bears has beenpoorly(poor) studied.

(9) It iscertainly(certain) fun but the lifestyle is a little unreal.

(10) A taste for meat isactually(actual) behind the change.

(11) I'm ascientist(science) who studies animals such as apes and monkeys.

(12) Last winter I wentthere(here) again,

(13) I stopped the ball and kicked ithard(hardly) back to the playground.

(14) Fromthen(now) on, I started to play football with classmates after school.

(15)Besides(Beside), they often get some useful information from the internet.

除此外，在S+V+P结构中，表语只能用形容词，不能用副词。

(16) I hoped I could befree(freely) from them.

(17) However, becareful(care) not to go to extremes.

(18) Running is cheap, easy and it's alwaysenergetic(energy).

(19) I felthappy(happily) that their life had improved.

(20) It’swonderful(wonder).

(21) His uniform looked socool(coolly).

(二)英语语法

英语和汉语都使用介词，英汉多用于固定搭配，常出现在添加、删除或修改中。

(22) Most of us are more focusedon/upon∧our tasks in the morning than we are later in the day.

(23) Now I am leaving homefor∧college.

(24) I realize(of) how fast time flies.

(25) I planned to return(for) every two years.

(26) I came to a sudden stop just in the middleof(on) the road.

(27) Still I was unwilling to play the gameswith(for) them sometimes.

冠词只存在英语语言中，汉语没有。冠词本身很难，但考试一般是考常见的语言现象。冠词分为三类：不定冠词a/an、定冠词 the和零冠词。不定冠词a和an用于可数名词单数前，其区别是看靠近它的单词的第一个音素，辅音用a，元音用an，是看音标而不是看单词字母。定冠词的使用有四个原则：后照应(Cataphoric specific reference)、前照应(anaphoric specific reference)、语境照应(situational reference)[12]和固定搭配。除此外，使用零冠词和不定冠词，也存在固定搭配中。冠词虽复杂，但一般考的是最基本的用法。

(28) Suddenlya∧football fell just in front of me and almost hit me.

(29) In that case, we will learn little aboutthe∧world.

(30) At﹨(the) first, I thought I knew everything and could make decisions by myself.

(31) It takes them aboutan(a) hour and a half to go to work every day.

(32) Each of my cafes will have a different theme anda(an) unique style.

(33) Asa(the) kid, I loved to watch cartoons.

英语曲折变化在英语语法专著中，仅寥寥数行一带而过。其实，英语曲折词缀几乎是整个英语语法体系的提纲挈领的“领”(见表4)。和印欧语系其它语言相比，现代英语的曲折变化只保留了极少的部分。

表4英语曲折词缀的分类及语法功能

可数名词有单复数变化，而不可数名词不能用复数。单复数变化有外部曲折，在名词后加s/es；内部曲折，如man-men；也有不变的，和汉语一样，如deer-deer, fish-fish。内部曲折和单复数不变的，在高考中还没出现。名词有通格和属格变化。

(34) I wish to have a chain of cafes in many differentcities(city).

(35) All the footballplayers(player) on the playground cheered loudly.

(36) We can gainknowledge(knowledges) we cannot get from books.

(37) Besides, they often get some usefulinformation (informations) from the internet.

(38) Recentstudies(study) show that we are far more productive at work.

(39) After supper, we would play card games of allsorts(sort) in the sitting room.

(40) When I was little,Friday(Friday’s) night was our family game night.

形容词、副词和部分限定词的语法特征是原级(positive or absolute degree)、比较级(comparative degree)和最高级(superlative degree)。等级比较有综合形式(Synthetic form)，即原级加er/est, 以及分析形式(Analytical form)，即more/ most 加原级。分析形式和汉语一致。综合形式还有内部曲折，如bad-worse-worst。比较级常和than连用。形容词和副词的等级常出现在语句的修改、添加或删除中。

(41) Evenworse(bad), the amount of fast food that people eat goes up.

(42) He screams theloudest(loud) of all.

(43) They were also the best andworst(worse) years in my life.

(44) I enjoyed collecting thelatest(late) music albums.

(45) They often get upearly(earlier) and water the vegetables together.

(46) A few minuteslater(late), the instructor asked me to stop the car.

(47) Running ismore effective at lengthening lifethan_∧walking, cycling or swimming.

(48) Corn uses less waterthan∧rice.

(49) A sick person could feel much(more) better after seeing a doctor.

代词的曲折变化是古英语留存最完整的。它的关键点是人称、性、数要和格保持一致，即纵向的完全一致。常出现在语句的修改上，偶尔会是词语的添加或删除上(见表5)。

表5代词人称，数，性，格

(50) I help a lively three-month-old twin that had been rejected bytheir(it) mother.

(51) If we go on a trip abroad, we can broadenour(your) view.

(52) I was just glad to findthem(they) alive.

(53) Mr. and Mrs. Zhang / both(all) work in our school.

(54) It does not costmuch(many), yet we can still learn a lot.

(55) However, my parents didn’t seem to thinkso(such).

(56) They were living in a small house with dogs, ducks, andother(another) animals.

(57)There(They) were two reasons for the decision.

(58) I still want to have my parents to turn to wheneverI∧need help.

(59) I still remember how hardmy∧first day was.

(60) I started to play(my) football with classmates after school.

英语和汉语都有数词，分为基数词和序数词。基数词添加后缀th变成序数词，汉语在前面加“第”。英语特殊序数词有first, second, third, fifth, eighth, ninth, twelfth, twentieth等，常出现在改错中。

(61) In the summer holiday following myeighteenth(eighteen) birthday, I took driving lessons.

(62) When I was in thefifth(five) grade, I wanted to be a teacher.

(三)英语句法

动词的曲折变化有：V-s/-es用于一般现在时第三人称单数，V-ed用于一般过去时，V-ing是现在分词或动名词，V-ed是过去分词。除V-ing外，其他的还有内部曲折变化。前面两个是谓语动词，后两个是非谓语动词。

1.限定动词

英语的句法结构以实意动词为中心，构建不同句型。动词最高层面划分为限定动词(Finite Verb)或谓语动词和非限定动词(Nonfinite Verb)或非谓语动词(见图2)。非限定动词包括不定式(Infinitive)、V-ing形式和V-ed分词。限定动词分为主动词(Main Verb，即实意动词)和助动词(Auxiliary Verb)。助动词be和have有强大的语法功能，be + V-ing是进行体，be+ V-ed是被动态，have+ V-ed是完成体，Have+ been +V-ing 是完成进行体。限定动词主动语态四种体是V一般体、be+ V-ing 进行体、have+ v-ed 完成体、have+ been+ V-ing完成进行体；两种态是V 主动语态和be+ V-ed被动语态。限定动词还有现在、过去、将来、过去将来四种时，由此限定动词共32种(见图3)。

图2 动词的部分分类

图3 限定动词的时、体、态、式(Mood)的划分

主动词可进一步分为及物动词(Transitive Verb, Vt.)、不及物动词(Intransitive Verb, Vi.)和连系动词(Linking Verb)。它们可以组成以下基本句型或最基本的简单句(见图4)。

图4 英语基本句型

从上面的六种基本句型可以看出，任何一个简单句都包含有一个S+V的主谓结构(见图5)。简单句可能有并列主语或并列谓语，或主语谓语都并列，但还是简单句。这里的and 指代并列连词。英语的四大句子类型都是在简单句型基础上形成的(见图6)。

图5 变形的简单句

图6 句子类型

并列连词如果连接的是两个或两个以上简单句，就构成并列句；如果两个简单句加并列连词，再有一个或一个以上的限定从属分句，就构成了并列复杂句。

限定从属分句(Finite clause)可能在句首、句中或句尾。从句中至少有一个完整句(Full sentence)，即S+V。当然从句中还可能再出现从句，句式结构也就更复杂了(见图7)。

图7 限定性从句的划分

(63)Leaving the less important things until tomorrowis oftenacceptable.

S+Vl.+P. (简单句)

(64)The classroomisa place for learningandthatincludeslearning from the textbook, and mistakes as well.

S1+V1+P and S2+V2+O.(并列句)

(65)Theywere well trainedby their masterswhohadgreat experience.(定语从句)

S+V+Finite Clause (S+ V+O).(复杂句)

(66)The gamesmyparentstaughtmewhen I was a childturned outto be very useful later in my life.

S+Clause1(S +V ) +Clause2(S+V )V+P(复杂句)

(定语从句和状语从句)

(67)I told my father that I planned to return every two years, and he agreed.(宾语从句)

S1+V1+O+ Clause (S +V+O) and S2+V2.(并列复杂句)

时：限定动词的人称，数和时要一致：当主语是第三人称单数时，一般现在时用V-s/-es，其余人称用动词原形(base form)。时一致主要观察上下文，现在时或过去时，全文保持一致，特殊情况除外。Be有am、is、are、 was和 were时的前后一致在高考中占了很大比重，主要是修改。

(68) The reviewsaysitis(be) more effective at lengthening life.

(69) When summercomes(came), theywillinvite their students to pick up their vegetables.

(70) Ithink(thought) that itisa good idea.

(71) Once Istartedthe car, my mindwent(goes) blank.

(72) Ienteredmy second year of high school andbecame(becomes)a new member.

体：限定动词和非限定动词都集中在一般体上，如前后文的例句。限定动词也考了现在完成体，但上下文有较为明显的暗示。

(73) I realize how fast timeflies, Ihave(had) grown not only physically, but also mentally in the past few years.

(74)Since2011, the countryhas grown(grow)more corn than rice.

(75)Inrecentyearssome Inuit people in Nunayuthave reported(report) increases in bear sightings around human settlements.

(76) I love coming here and seeing my family and all the friends Ihave made(make)overtheyears.

态：主考主动语态，如前后文的例句。偶尔也会出现被动语态，只考一般现在和一般过去。被动态的结构是be+ V-ed，V-ed不变，只变be，即 am/ is/ are/ was/ were +V-ed，只需在be的各种形式上做选择。

(77) Fresh vegetables and high quality oil areused(using) for cooking.

(78) Truly elegant chopsticksmightbe made(make) of gold and silver.

(79) Whenfat and saltare removed(remove) from food, the food tastes as if missing something.

(80) The road surfacewasreplaced. Steamengineswere used(use) to pull the carriages.

(81) Sarahwas told(tell) that shecouldbe Britain’s new supermodel.

式或语气：式分陈述式、祈使式和虚拟式。陈述式是常态，祈使式和虚拟式很少出现，多在修改题型中。

(82) “Speed up!” “Slow down!” “Turn(Turning)left!”

(83) Whatever it is,make(make) sure it’s a relief from daily stress.

(84) Some classmates suggest we /should(can) go to places of interest nearby.

行文逻辑：这里指并列连词，它可以连接词、短语、分句和句子。并列连词的取舍或选取要根据上下文来确定，故称行文逻辑，出现在添加和修改中。

(85) I work not because I have to,but∧because I want to.

(86) In China, Japan, Korea,and∧Vietnam, food is usually eaten with chopsticks.

(87) At the end of our trip, I told my father that I planned to return every two years,and(but) he agreed.

(88) I thought I had learned the instructor’s orders,but/yet(so)once I started the car, my mind went blank.

(89) Everyone was silent, waiting to see who would be called upon to read hisor(and) her paragraph aloud.

(90) Fresh vegetablesand(or) high quality oil are using for cooking.

状语从句：语义和逻辑一致，但也有例外，汉语用“虽然……但是”“因为……所以”，英语的though/but，because/so只能选取其一。

(91) Though not very big, (but) the Restaurant is popular in our area.

(92) One afternoon,when(where) I was in primary school, I was walking by the school playground.

(93)When∧the population grew, people began cutting food into small pieces.

(94) It was rainingso∧hard that we couldn't help wondering how long it would take to getthere.

名词从句：主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和汉语较为一致，语义逻辑差别不大，如I doubt whether…和I do not doubt that。同位语从句连词多用that，但也有例外，如 there is a doubt whether… 和there is no doubt that…。

(95) My uncle is the owner of a restaurant close towhere(that) I live.

(96) I'm not surewhich∧is more frightened, me or the female gorilla that suddenly appears out of nowhere.

(97) There is evidencethat∧they range all the way across the Arctic.

定语从句：英语有定语从句，汉语没有。定语从句的关系词的添加和修改是这两类题型的考试重点。关系词的选择取决于关系词在定语从句的成分和先行词指人或物。句子成分齐全时，依据先行词选取when、where 或why。限制和非限制定语从句区别在于关系词和先行词之间是否有逗号隔开。Who、whom、whose属英语独特的曲折词缀，具体情况见表6。

表6定语从句的关系词区分

(98) They were well trained by their masterswho∧had great experience.

(99) Sarah,who∧has taken part in shows along with top models wants to prove that she has brains as well as beauty.

(100) It is possible to have too much of both,which∧is not good for the health.

(101) The government started a soil-testing programwhich∧gives specific fertilizer recommendations to farmers.

(102) In the picture are the thingswhich/ that(they) were very important in my life at that time.

(103) They are interested in planting vegetables in their garden,which(that) is on the rooftop of their house.

(104) They also had a small pondwhere(which ) they raised fish.

(105) Customers will enjoy themselves in the historical environmentwhich/ that(what) is created for them.

无论限定动词的体和态多么复杂，都只有时是限定词，其余的是V(base form)、V-ed、V-ing或后二者结合。限定动词排序依次是时、体、态。如comes(三单现在时+一般体+主动语态)、were invited (过去时+一般体+被动语态 were +V-ed)、has grown(三单现在时+完成体+主动语态has+ V-ed)、 would have been doing (过去时+完成体+进行体+主动语态 would+ V+ V-ed+ V-ing)。

2.非限定动词

非限定动词，即非谓语动词，是英语语法的独特现象。汉语可以使用连谓式，如“我喜欢打篮球”，“喜欢”和“打”都是动词，并行使用，也可以使用兼语式，如“我邀请你参加我的聚会”， “邀请”和“参加”动词并存不变。英语动词有主次之分，限定动词为主，非限定动词为次，如“I enjoy playing basketball”和“I invite you to attend my party”。简单句和限定从属分句里至少有一套S+V结构，除此外，再出现动词，就必须使用非限定动词。简言之，英语总的句法结构是S+V+(to V, V-ing, V-ed)。非限定动词可能出现在句首、句中或句尾。非限定动词没有人称和时的变化，只有八种体，主动和被动各四种，不定式和V-ing已经损减很多，只留下少部分，V-ed只有一种形式。

(106) Hedoesn't feelchallenged(challenge).

S+V+V-ed.

(107)We got a callsaying(say) she was short-listed.

S+V+O+V-ing+ Clause( S + V+P ).

(108) Now my dream isto opena café.

S+V+ to V.

(109)Sarah wants to prove (prove) that she has brains as well as beauty.

S+V+to V +Clause (S+ V+O ).

(110)When I was little, I∧unwilling to play the games with them sometimes.

Clause (S+V+P),S+∧to+ V. (缺谓语V)

过去分词：V-ed用于have+ V-ed完成体；be+ V-ed表示被动语态；及物动词V-ed表被动，不及物V-ed表完成，在句中作定语，相当于定语从句的改写，作补语，作状语等。

(111) It was Monday morning, and the writing class had justbegun(begin). (had+ V-ed，完成体)

(112) This photo wastaken(took). (was +V-ed, 被动语态)

(113) I was the first Western TV reporterpermitted(permit) to film a special unit. (定语，“被允许”)

(114) He doesn't feelchallenged(challenge). (表语，“受到挑战”)

(115) I becameinterested(interesting) in playing football thanks to a small accident. (表语，固定搭配)

V-ing形式：用于某些动词和介词后作宾语；表示平行结构，前面或后面并行；用作主动词的伴随状语；作定语，修饰先行词等。

(116) 16-year-old Sarah is notspending half-termresting(rest).

(117) A 90-year-old woman has been awarded “Woman of the Year” forbeing(be) Britain's oldest full-time employee-still working 40 hours a week.

(118) This includeddiggingup the road,laying(lay) the track and thenbuildinga strong roof.

(119) People probably cooked their rood in large pots,using(use) twigs to remove it.

(120) Everyone was silent,waiting(wait) to see who would be called upon to read his paragraph aloud.

(121) When we got a callsaying(say) she was short-listed，we thought it was a joke.

不定式：不带to的不定式常用于情态动词之后；表现为已经有to的不定式；用于某些习惯搭配之中的不定式等。但要区分to是介词还是不定式符号to、如to作介词的devote…to, look forward to等用V-ing。

(122) Wecanchoose(chose) between staying at home and taking a trip.

(123) No matter how many times I askedtowatch(watching)them, my parentswouldnotlet(to let) me.

(124) Now my dream istoopen (opens) a café.

(125) I amlookingforwardtohearingfrom you soon.

带to的不定式是非限定动词的常态。主要用于某些动词作宾语，某些形容词后作状语、作补语、作同位语。典型的是作目的和结果状语等。

(126) She wantsto prove(prove) that she has brains as well as beauty.

(127) You’ll be less likelyto bring(bring) your work home.

(128) They are requiredto process(process) the food that we eat.

(129) Proud Irene declared she had no plansto retire (retire)from her 36-year-old business.

(130) Skilled workers also combine various hardwoods and metalto create(create) special designs.

通过对语法填空和短文改错进行词法、语法和句法的探讨，可以看出现行的高考中，词法主考后缀改变词性，即动词和名词、名词和形容词及形容词和副词相互转换，四类实词因在句中所作成分差异而不同。语法考点中，介词多是简单的固定搭配；冠词多是常见用法；名词单数变复数居多，不可数名词只能用单数；形容词和副词在原级、比较级和最高级之间变化，多有明显标记；代词是人称、数、性要和格保持一致。句法涉及面广，包括动词的时、体、态、式及限定动词和非限定动词，但实则只有四种句子类型，主句和限定从属分都包含至少一个限定动词，其余的需要使用非限定动词。限定动词和非限定动词是历年考试重点。行文逻辑主考语言逻辑。综上，这两类构建题型基本是考英汉差别，尤其是派生词缀和曲折词缀。

五、结语

语法填空和短文改错是近四年三卷都考到的题型，其目的是考学生的语言综合运用能力。本文先是从词法、句法和语篇对这两类题型进行分别和综合统计分析，再从英语词法、语法和句法的角度，从近四年的考题中抽取例句，进行归类总结分析，以厘清各个考点，为中学英语教学提供总的网络结构，逐步落实到平时的教学之中，或为高考备考的专项和综合练习提供可借鉴的方法。但是文中对各考点大的分类及词目归类有不完善或不恰当之处，而且研究时忽略了篇章差异和语篇的整体性；词法、语法和句法分析因篇幅有限有些就事论事、简单粗暴。因而，词法、语法和句法最终还得回归语篇，落实到课本，夯实基础，才有可能提高学生综合水平和能力。

注释：

① 参见2016年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试英语试题. http://help.dearedu.com/html/special/2016/0602/1.html?pc_hash=hodua6#sd；2017年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试英语试题. http://help.dearedu.com/urlManger/index.php?c=index&m=home&a=index&year=2017；2018年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试英语试题. http://www.dearedu.com/zt/gk2018/index.html；2019年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试英语试题. http://help.dearedu.com/urlManger/index.php?c=index&m=home&a=index&year=2019. 2019-09-23.