食管癌分子标记物研究进展
2018-01-05李恒存朱圣韬张澍田
赵 宇,李恒存,朱圣韬,闵 力,张澍田
(首都医科大学附属北京友谊医院消化内科,国家消化系统疾病临床医学研究中心,消化疾病癌前病变北京市重点实验室,北京市消化疾病中心,北京100050)
·综述·
食管癌分子标记物研究进展
赵 宇,李恒存,朱圣韬,闵 力,张澍田
(首都医科大学附属北京友谊医院消化内科,国家消化系统疾病临床医学研究中心,消化疾病癌前病变北京市重点实验室,北京市消化疾病中心,北京100050)
0 引言
相关流行病学调查显示,全球范围内食管癌(esophageal carcinoma,EC)的发病率在全部肿瘤中位列第八,病死率位居第六[1],每年预计新发病例约482 300例,死亡病例约406 800例[1].在美国等发达国家,EC发病率较低[2],而在我国,EC的发病率在全部肿瘤中位居第三,病死率位列第四[3].病理学上,EC主要分为鳞癌与腺癌两种,腺癌主要在欧美地区多发,而鳞癌多发于中亚、东亚等亚洲地区[4-5].
食管鳞癌(esophageal squamous cell carcinoma,ESCC)在亚洲高发地区的主要危险因素包括营养不良、水果蔬菜摄入少以及进食过高温度的食物,而在欧美等癌变风险较低的地区,主要危险因素是吸烟以及过量的酒精摄入[4].食管腺癌(esophageal adenocarcinoma,EAC)的主要危险因素为吸烟、肥胖以及反流性食管炎等[6].
在疾病的起源上,目前认为Barrett食管为EAC的癌前病变,随后经过低级别、中等级别以及高级别的异型增生进而进展为腺癌[7],而ESCC经历上皮的过度增生以及低中高度异型增生进而发展为癌[8].
针对EC发生与进展的生物学过程,相关研究发现了一系列关键分子生物学事件,包括基因突变、甲基化、杂合性丢失(loss of heterozygosity, LOH)、拷贝数改变(copy number variation,CNV)及表达差异等[9-13],这些分子标记物为预测 EC 发病风险、预后及治疗反应性等提供了很好的指导.本文拟对EC相关分子标记物进行梳理总结,为针对EC后续的深入研究以及临床应用提供参考.
1 EAC
EAC是起源于食管黏膜上皮或贲门腺体的恶性肿瘤,其发展与长期慢性炎症相关,通常认为Barrett食管是其癌前病变.P53作为调控细胞生长的关键分子,在生长周期、细胞分化、凋亡以及DNA错配修复中起着核心作用,约50%的恶性肿瘤存在P53基因的突变[14].在EAC中,P53的突变类型主要为G:C→A:T,其突变率各文献报道差异较大,约40%~90%,不同的突变位点引起的功能效应不同,部分位点的突变甚至起到了促进肿瘤生长的作用.临床统计显示,P53突变型患者在肿瘤的分化程度、治疗反应性、长期无病生存及五年生存率、TNM分期、淋巴结转移情况等方面均显著劣于P53野生型患者[15-19].
CNV是基因组结构性差异的常见形式,目前认为也是癌症起源、发展的机制之一,同样在EAC中,有文献报道了 EGFR、ERBB2/HER2、CCND1、FGF3/INT2的变异,为寻找潜在的EC分子标记物提供了可能.EGFR属于表皮生长因子受体家族,目前在各类肿瘤中研究较多,EGFR基因过表达在恶性肿瘤的进展中起到了关键作用,尤其是与肿瘤的血管生成、高侵袭性及转移相关[20],在 EAC中,同样可观察到EGFR基因扩增,且扩增与肿瘤大小、淋巴结转移、预后及治疗反应性相关[21-23].ERBB2同样属于表皮生长因子受体家族,在乳腺癌、胃癌、肺癌中均可发现此基因扩增,而ERBB2的高表达可激活Ras-MAPK和PI3K-Akt信号通路,进而促进细胞增殖,抑制细胞凋亡,也有文献[24-26]报道了其作为监测卵巢癌的效用.在EAC中,ERBB2的扩增占16%~25%,且与肿瘤的预后相关[27-32].另外,CCND1、FGF3/INT2 的基因扩增也提示与EAC的相关性,并且提示了不良预后及5 年生存率的降低[21,33].
LOH也是肿瘤发生发展的机制之一,在肿瘤的进展中,其主要指抑癌基因正常的两个成对等位基因中的一个出现了明显异常或缺失等变化,进而导致抑癌基因功能的丧失[34-36].在 EAC 中,有研究[37]报道了染色体1q的LOH对于患者生存的影响,染色体1q的 LOH发生率为66%,其中58%存在1q21的LOH,45%存在1q23的LOH;而1q21.23 LOH的患者与无丢失患者相比,生存率明显下降,且术前化疗反应性不佳.
DNA甲基化作为DNA修饰的一种形式,主要是在CpG双核苷酸上添加甲基,并不改变DNA的序列.而当抑癌基因被甲基化后,由于表达受限进而丧失了相应的功能,在EC中,DNA甲基化是较常见的发病机制之一[38-41].其中,对于 CDKN2A 的甲基化研究较多,有文献报道了CDKN2A的甲基化与9p21的LOH相关,目前认为CDKN2A的甲基化发生于Barrett食管进展为EAC的早期,发生率的报道差异性较大,为 3% ~77%[42-46].APC 基因及 CDH1 基因的甲基化同样在 Barrett食管及 EAC 中有报道[47-48],其中甚至有25%的患者可在血清中检测到APC基因的甲基化,这为EAC的早期诊断提供了潜在的可能[47].
在基因表达水平上,COX-2、VEGF、Cyclin D1、Ki-67、P53等具有代表性的基因也在EAC中存在表达水平的差异[49-51].对于COX-2的研究主要集中在鳞癌,但腺癌也有部分研究,认为COX-2在抑制肿瘤细胞凋亡,促进增殖方面发挥重要作用,其表达升高提示预后明显不良[49].VEGF的研究主要与腺癌的血管生成相关,因其产物促进肿瘤血管的生成进而发挥促肿瘤作用,同样,VEGF表达的升高提示预后不良[49-50].Cyclin D1 属于细胞周期家族,通过调控细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶发挥促增殖作用,Cyclin D1表达升高不仅提示预后不良,也提示肿瘤的化疗及放疗敏感性下降[51].在基因表达水平差异方面,Ki-67和P53作为常用的肿瘤标记物,在EAC中也有类似研究,Ki-67增殖指数高低与许多肿瘤的分化程度、浸润、转移以及预后密切相关.P53因在腺癌中突变较高,常常以突变作为腺癌的分子标记物,P53的部分突变为恶性突变,其表达升高往往提示更差的预后[49-51].
2 ESCC
ESCC是发生在食管鳞状上皮的一种恶性肿瘤,食管鳞状上皮不典型增生是食道癌的重要癌前病变,占我国EC的绝大多数.PIK3CA作为体细胞突变的癌基因,编码Ⅰ类磷脂酰肌醇-3-肌酶的p110催化亚基,目前在各类肿瘤中研究较多,其首先由Volinia等[52]利用原位杂交技术检测到.有文献[53]报道了ESCC中PIK3CA的突变状况,其突变率约为21%,且与AKT通路的激活相关,突变型患者的无病生存与总生存率均显著低于野生型患者.P53在ESCC中的突变也报道较多,突变率约为90%,很多突变在早期已经发生,突变往往以无义突变为主,但也有部分恶性突变,突变的患者往往化疗反应较差且预后不良[54-55].另外,NRF2 在 ESCC 中的突变也有研究,主要与疾病复发、无病生存以及淋巴结转移相关,同时在EC细胞系中敲低NRF2可以使癌细胞对5-Fu的敏感性提升,提示其也可作为治疗反应性的标记物之一[56].
在基因拷贝数方面,ESCC同样有 EGFR、CCND1、FGF3/INT2的变异.其中EGFR基因的拷贝数增加提示患者的预后更差,中位生存时间仅9个月,5年生存率仅7%,而 EGFR拷贝数正常的患者中位生存期为42个月,5年生存率可达43%[57].对于CCND1,其 CNV 发生率 40% ~ 50%,文献[58-61]提示CCND1拷贝数增加与预后不良相关,患者中位生存期降低,但也有文献[62]统计其拷贝数增加与生存无关.FGF3/INT2拷贝数的增加在鳞癌中研究较少,发生率报道差异较大(11%~62%),也可能与病变大小以及预后相关[63-65].另外,有研究[66-68]表明,MDM2、TERC、CPT1A等基因仅在ESCC中出现特异性的拷贝数变化,且多数与患者5年生存率及无病生存期相关,其中MDM2主要与肿瘤的转移相关,MDM2拷贝数增加往往提示肿瘤更容易出现淋巴结以及远处器官的转移;TERC表达端粒酶的RNA组分,在宫颈癌中研究较多,ESCC中也有相关报道,伴随肿瘤进展,拷贝数逐渐增加;CPT1A在脂质转移的研究机制中首先被发现,随后在鳞癌内发现其与淋巴结转移以及不良预后相关.
ESCC在LOH方面研究较少,目前仅有标记物D2S123(染色体2p)、D3S1067(染色体3p)和TP53(染色体17p)的报道,发生率分别为15%、55%和50%,与无LOH组相比,3年生存率明显下降(48%vs75%),提示预后不良,但是否与治疗反应性、远处转移等相关尚缺乏一定数据[69].
DNA甲基化方面,CDKN2A的甲基化同样可见于ESCC,发生率为 40%~62%,与 EAC类似,CDKN2A的甲基化程度与疾病进展相关[70-72].MGMT基因的甲基化在鳞癌中也比较常见,为33%~35%,MGMT基因参与DNA修复.有研究[73]认为,亚硝胺致EC的作用与MGMT基因的甲基化相关,因亚硝胺引起的DNA损伤无法修复,进而促使食管鳞状上皮向鳞癌的转化.另外,TFF1、REPRIMO、MLH1、TPEF等基因的甲基化在ESCC中也有报道,多数与疾病进展相关[74-85].其中TFF1基因在消化道肿瘤尤其是胃癌前病变中研究较多,在ESCC中,也发现其在部分癌前病变中有表达;REPRIMO基因也常发生于疾病早期,约40%的EC患者可检测到其甲基化;MLH1的甲基化与ESCC的病理类型、细胞分化程度和癌组织浸润深度存在相关性;TPEF基因则多与预后相关,甲基化发生率约54%.
表1 现阶段主要EC标记物汇总表
在基因表达层面,由于突变、甲基化、LOH等原因均可引起表达水平的差异,所以ESCC中单纯研究表达层面分子标记物的文献较少,目前主要关注survivin、COX-2、VEGF、E-cadherin、HER-2 等具有代表性的基因,前已述及相关作用,survivin在EC中的阳性表达率约90%,且主要与淋巴结转移以及肿瘤患者的生存相关[49];而COX-2主要通过周期以及凋亡相关通路发挥促癌作用,与肿瘤的放化疗反应性相关;VEGF作为调控肿瘤血管生成的关键分子,表达量常与肿瘤分期呈现正相关[50];E-cadherin在肿瘤侵袭、迁移相关的作用中起关键作用,表达量与肿瘤的淋巴结以及远处转移呈正相关[50],HER-2的表达主要与生存相关,但表达量与生存期的关系尚存在争议[49,51].
3 新一代组学带来的挑战
对于EAC,由于在欧美等发达国家发病率较高,基于西方人较为完善的生物样本库,有研究[86]利用近年来高速发展的组学研究技术,从全基因组、外显子组、转录组、甲基化组及蛋白质组等多个层面全面地评估了不同基因在不同水平病变中的动态变化,一方面验证了前期发现的各类标记物,另一方面也找到了一系列具有良好临床应用前景的新分子标记物.然而对于不同的组学研究,其找到的标记物重合度并不高,在突变层面,除P53的高突变率无争议外,其他突变率在10%以上的基因很难在不同数据库中获得一致结果[87-88].例如 BROAD 研究所在 2013年的数据显示 EAC 中 SYNE1、LRP1B、FLG、SPTA1、PCLO突变率均在20%以上[87],而近期MSK的IMPACT研究显示这些基因突变率低于10%[88];IMPACT研究显示 CDKN2A 的突变率达 20.54%[88],但 BROAD 的研究中其突变率仅13.01%[87].这些不一致的结果说明,不同地区不同人群在EAC的突变谱系上存在非常大的差异,目前我国并没有建立基于国内人群的EAC组学数据库,但在近年来EAC发病率快速上升的背景下[3],我们迫切需要建立规范化的中国人EAC队列与组学数据库,在尝试引入国外EAC标记物的同时,在国内人群中进行大规模样本验证显得尤为重要.
而对于ESCC,由于其高发区集中于我国的欠发达地区,而西方人群,尤其是发达国家的发病率较低,在缺乏生物样本库建设以及基因组学研究高昂的成本下,相关的组学研究尚处于起步阶段.2014年UCLA的研究显示除TP53外,TTN、KMT2D突变率也较高(>15%)[89],而这些基因中只有 KMT2D在TCGA数据库得到印证[90],同时 TCGA数据库里的CSMD3、DNAH5、NFE2L2、OBSCN[90],在 UCLA 的数据库中也没有显示出较高的突变率[89].作为ESCC高发地区,我国目前亟待进一步扩大相关组学研究的样本量,推进相关新型标记物在多中心大样本中的验证性研究,及早开发出适合国内人群的可用于早期诊断及判断预后相关的EC分子标记物.
4 问题与展望
虽然目前针对EC诊断及预后的分子标记物研究较多,且涉及到表观遗传学、突变、表达水平等多方面,但由于缺乏大规模、多中心的临床验证以及相关前瞻性研究,目前报道的分子标记物尚未在临床开展应用,这也是各肿瘤分子标记物所面临的普遍问题.随着科学技术的发展,尤其是高通量测序技术的普及和大规模专病人群队列和样本库的建立,新的EC分子标记物的研发将得到长足的进展,而已有的经典标记物也将得到可信度更强、证据级别更高的评估,进一步促进EC的临床诊断与治疗.
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Research progress in molecular markers of esophageal cancer
ZHAO Yu, LI Heng-Cun, ZHU Sheng-Tao, MIN Li, ZHANG Shu-Tian
Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital,Capital Medical University,National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, Beijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease,Beijing 100050,China
Esophageal cancer(EC) is one of the most common diagnosed carcinomas with a high ranked mortality worldwide.Especially in China,ESCC patients account for 90%of the global total.The mechanism of EC and discovery of its new drug target has become a research focus.EC can be divided into two subtypes:esophageal adenocarcinoma(EAC) and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma(ESCC).Considering the mechanisms of carcinogenesis are different between these two subtypes,we displayed contents of EAC and ESCC separately.Mutations, copy number variation(CNV), loss of heterogeneity(LOH), and changes of expression in EC were all included in this review.For the studies of EAC, the diagnostic value of P53, EGFR, ERBB2, CCND1,FGF3/INT2, 1q21 LOH, 1q23 LOH, CDKN2A, APC, CDH1,COX-2, VEGF, Cylin D1 and Ki-67 were summarized.For the studies of ESCC, the diagnostic value of PIK3CA, NRF2, EGFR,CCND1,MDM2,TERC,CPT1A,2p LOH,3p LOH,17p LOH, CDKN2A, MGMT, TFF1, REPRIMO, MLH1, TPEF,CDH1, COX-2, VEGF, E-cadherin, HER-2 were summarized.In this article,the role of the above-mentioned biomarkers in cancer diagnosis, prognosis and treatment response were investigated,which might shed light on screening and treatment of EC.
esophageal adenocarcinoma; esophageal squamous cell carcinoma; biomarkers; diagnosis; prognosis
食管癌(EC)的发病率及病死率在全球位居前列,尤其在中国,食管鳞癌(ESCC)患者约占全球总数的90%.因此,探讨EC发病机制,寻找新的靶向治疗成为目前的研究热点.EC依据病理类型可分为ESCC及食管腺癌(EAC),由于二者发病机制不同,本文拟从这两方面分别进行阐述.目前针对EC分子标记物的研究,主要集中在基因突变、基因拷贝数改变(CNV)、杂合性丢失(LOH)以及表达量变化四个方面,不同的改变常常提示着疾病的不同阶段,也预示着不同的治疗反应性及无病生存期.EAC方面,我们对P53、EGFR、ERBB2、CCND1、FGF3/INT2、1q21 LOH、1q23 LOH、CDKN2A、APC、CDH1、COX-2、VEGF、Cyclin D1 和 Ki-67 等标记物在诊断及治疗中的应用价值进行了总结;而在ESCC方面,我们对PIK3CA、NRF2、EGFR、CCND1、MDM2、TERC、CPT1A、2p LOH、3p LOH、17p LOH、CDKN2A、MGMT、TFF1、REPRIMO、MLH1、TPEF、CDH1、COX-2、VEGF、E-cadherin、HER-2 等标记物进行了综述.本文旨在为临床EC的诊疗工作提供可行性建议,同时为国内广大学者在EC分子标记物领域的研究提供参考.
食管腺癌;食管鳞癌;分子标记物;诊断;预后
R735.1
A
2095-6894(2017)12-38-07
2017-05-24;接受日期:2017-06-22
国家自然科学基金(81302160,81272447);北京市教育委员会重点项目(KZ201410025024)
赵 宇.博士.E-mail:doctor.zhaoyu@ hotmail.com
闵 力.博士,助理研究员.研究方向:消化道肿瘤.E-mail:minli.mailbox@ gmail.com
张澍田(共同通讯作者).博士,教授.研究方向:消化道肿瘤.E-mail:zhangshutian@ ccmu.edu.cn