中华思想文化术语(连载二)



中华思想文化术语(连载二)

1.宇宙 /yǔzhòu/

Universe/Cosmos

本义指屋檐和栋梁，引申指空间和时间，及由无限空间和无限时间所构成的世界整体。“宇”指天地四方，也即包括上、下、东、西、南、北的整个空间；“宙”指往古来今，也即包括过去和未来的整个时间。“宇宙”在空间上可以无限扩展，在时间上可以无限延续。中国哲学以“宇宙论”指称探讨世界本体及世界发生发展进程的学问。

The original meaning of the term refers to the eave and beam of a house while its extended meaning is time and space，as well as the whole world composed of limitless time and space. The first characteryu(宇) means heaven and earth as well as all the directions of north，south，east and west，upward and downward；the second characterzhou(宙) means all of time，the past，present and future. Together，the term implies infinite space and endless time. In Chinese philosophy，“theories of the universe” are concerned with the existence of the world in an ontological senseand with its process of evolution.

引例 Citations：

往古来今谓之宙，四方上下谓之宇。(《淮南子·齐俗训》)

(由过去到未来的时间称为“宙”，东南西北上下的空间称为“宇”。)

The past，present and future are calledzhou；north，south，east，west，upward and downward are calledyu.(Huainanzi)

宇之表无极，宙之端无穷。(张衡《灵宪》)

(“宇”的外延是没有极限的，“宙”的终始是没有穷尽的。)

Yusignifies space without limits;zhourepresents time without end. (Zhang Heng：LawoftheUniverse)

2.自然 /zìrán/

Naturalness

事物的本来状态，旨在与“人为”的意义相区别。哲学意义上的“自然”的概念，与常识性的“自然界”的概念不同。在日常语义中，“自然界”指人与社会之外的物质世界，这一领域是不受人为干扰的。但从哲学层面来看，人与社会也有其“自然”状态。在政治哲学领域，“自然”特指百姓在不受行政教化干预的情况下自己而然的状态。道家主张，君主治理国家应遵循、顺应百姓的“自然”状态。

The term refers to the primordial state of things，unaffected by the various meanings imposed on it by man. The concept of naturalness in philosophy is different from that of nature in the ordinary sense. In daily language，the term refers to the physical world which is independent of human interference as opposed to human society. In philosophy there is also a natural state of man and society. In political philosophy，“naturalness” specifically applies to the natural state enjoyed by ordinary people free from the intervention of government supervision and moral edification. Daoism holds that in governance a monarch should conform to the natural state of the people.

引例 Citations：

道法自然。(《老子·二十五章》)

(道以自然为法则。)

Daotakes naturalness as its law. (Laozi)

天地任自然，无为无造，万物自相治理。(王弼《老子注》)

(天地听任万物之自然，不施为造作，而让万物自己相互治理。)

Heaven and earth allow everything to follow their natural course without imposing any interference so that all things interact and govern themselves. (Wang Bi：AnnotationsonLaozi)

3.悲慨 /bēikǎi/

Melancholy and Resentment

悲伤愤慨。慨，感慨，愤慨，是晚唐诗人司空图所概括的诗歌的二十四种风格之一。主要指诗作中所表现出的悲剧性情结。当诗人命途多舛或身处困境，或面对壮阔景观或大的事件而自觉力量渺小，会产生忧愁、悲哀、感伤、激愤的情绪，投射到诗歌创作中则形成“悲慨”风格。这一术语看似近于西方文学理论的“悲剧”范畴，实质上受道家思想影响较大，而最后往往趋于无奈或趋于旷达。

Melancholy and resentment which here refers to a sense of helplessness found in poemsis one of the 24 poetic styles summarized by Sikong Tua poet in the late Tang Dynasty. Faced with frustrations and tough challenges in life or overwhelmed by the immensity of nature or major events，poets were often seized by dejection，grief，sadness and anger which gave rise to a“melancholy and resentment” style in poetry writing. While the style bears similarity with the genre of tragedy in Western literary tradition，it is more influenced by Daoism，often featuring a sense of resignation or stoic optimism.

引例 Citations：

大风卷水，林木为摧。适苦欲死，招憩不来。百岁如流，富贵冷灰。大道日丧，若为雄才。壮士拂剑，浩然弥哀。萧萧落叶，漏雨苍苔。(司空图《二十四诗品·悲慨》)

(大风卷起狂澜，树木遭受摧折。心中悲苦痛不欲生，想休憩片刻亦不可得。百年岁月像流水永逝，富贵和繁华都化作冷寂尘埃。世道日益沦丧，谁是当世雄才？壮士拔剑仰天叹，凝望苍穹愈悲哀。好比落叶萧萧下，且听漏雨滴苍苔。)

Winds are howling，waves raging，and tree branches breaking. Gripped by an agonizing pain at my heart，I yearn for a spell of peace but only in vain. As time slips by，year after year，decade after decade，all the riches，fame and splendor are but nothing. Facing moral degeneration，who will rise and salvage the world? With sword in hand，I heave a deep sigh and stare intensely at the sky. Overwhelmed with sorrow，all I can do is to watch leaves falling and hear rain beating against the moss. (Sikong Tu：Twenty-fourStylesofPoetry)

感叹之余，作诗相属，托物悲慨，阨穷而不怨，泰而不骄。(苏轼《和王晋卿[并叙]》)

(在感叹之余，蒙其作诗劝慰嘱咐，借景物抒发内心悲伤愤慨的情绪，虽遇困厄而不怨恨，命运通达也不骄狂。)

After a deep sigh，he wrote a poem to admonish and comfort me，in which he expressed his indignation and resentment by making an analogy with imagery. He advised me not to grudge about tough times or be complacent when everything goes well in life. (Su Shi：APoeminReplytoWangJinqingwithaPreface)

4.本末 /běnmò/

BenandMo(The Fundamental and the Incidental)

本义指草木的根和梢，引申而为中国哲学的重要概念。其含义可以概括为三个方面：其一，指具有不同价值和重要性的事物，根本的、主要的事物为“本”，非根本的、次要的事物为“末”；其二，世界的本体或本原为“本”，具体的事物或现象为“末”；其三，在道家的政治哲学中，无为之治下的自然状态为“本”，各种具体的道德、纲常为“末”。在“本末”对待的关系中，“本”具有根本性、主导性的作用和意义，“末”由“本”而生，依赖“本”而存在，但“本”的作用的发挥仍需以“末”为载体。二者既相互区别，又相互依赖。

The two characters literally mean the different parts of a plant，namely，its root and its foliage. The extended meaning is an important concept in Chinese philosophical discourse. The term can be understood in three different ways. (1)Ben(本) refers to what is fundamental or essential whilemo(末) means what is minor or incidental，two qualities that differ in value and importance. (2)Benrefers to the existence of the world in an ontological sense whilemorepresents any specific thing or phenomenon. (3) In Daoist political philosophybenis a state in which rule is exercised by not disrupting the natural order of the world whilemorefers to moral standards and fundamental principles governing social behavior. In anyben-morelationship，benis most important and plays a dominant role whilemoexists thanks toben. On the other hand，it is through the vehicle ofmothatbenexerts its influence. Thus the two，though different，are mutually dependent.

引例 Citations：

子夏之门人小子，当洒扫应对进退，则可矣，抑末也。本之则无，如之何？(《论语·子张》)

(子夏的学生，叫他们做打扫、接待、应对的工作，那是可以的，不过这只是末节罢了。而那些最根本性的学问却没有学习，这怎么行呢？)

Zixia’s students can clean，receive guests and engage in social interaction，but these are trivial things. They have not learned the fundamentals. How can this be sufficient? (TheAnalects)

崇本以举其末。(王弼《老子注》)

(崇尚自然无为之本以统括道德礼法之末。)

One should respect，not interfere with，the natural order of the world，and apply this principle when establishing moral standards，social norms，and laws and regulations. (Wang Bi：CommentariesonLaozi)

5.般若 /bōrě/

Buddhist Wisdom

梵文prajnā 的音译(或译为“波若”)。意为“智慧”，指能洞见一切事物本性、认识万物真相的最高的智慧。佛教认为，“般若”是超越一切世俗认识的特殊智慧，是觉悟得道、修成佛或菩萨的所有修行方法的指南或根本。然而，这种智慧本身无形无相，不可言说，仅能依赖各种方便法门而有所领悟。

The term is the transliteration of the Sanskrit wordprajnā，meaning wisdom. It refers to the supreme wisdom with insight into the nature and reality of all things. Buddhism believes that such wisdom surpasses all secular understandings and therefore is the guide for or essence of the effort aimed at achieving enlightenment and attaining Buddhahood or bodhisattvahood. This wisdom has no form，no appearance and cannot be expressed in words. It can only be achieved by undertaking a variety of accessible Buddhist practices.

引例 Citation：

般若无所知，无所见。(僧肇《肇论》引《道行般若经》)

(般若这种智慧不是普通的知识，也超越一切具体的见闻。)

Prajã is the wisdom that surpasses all common or ordinary knowledge and specific understandings. (Sengzhao：TreatisesofSengzhao)

6.不学《诗》，无以言 /bù xué shī wú yǐ yán/

You won’t be able to talk properly with others without studyingTheBookofSongs.

不学习《诗经》，就不能提高与人交流和表达的能力。孔子时代，《诗经》象征着一个人的社会身份与文化修养。不学习《诗经》，就无法参与君子间的各种交往，就不能提高语言表达能力。孔子对《诗经》与社会交往关系的论述，实际阐明了文学的教育功能或者说文学在教育中的重要地位。

In Confucius’ time，how well one understoodTheBookofSongswas a sign of his social status and cultural attainment. If one did not study it，one would find it difficult to improve one’s ability to express oneself and to converse with people of high social status. Confucius’ elaboration on the relationship between studyingTheBookofSongsand social interaction actually expounds on the importance of literature in education.

引例 Citation：

尝独立，鲤过于庭。曰：“学《诗》乎？”对曰：“未也。”“不学《诗》，无以言。”(《论语·季氏》)

(孔子曾独自站在堂上，儿子伯鱼从堂下庭院经过，孔子问他：“学习《诗经》了吗？”伯鱼回答：“没有。”孔子说：“不学习《诗经》，就不会交流与表达。”)

Confucius was standing alone in the central hall when his son Boyu walked across the front yard. Confucius asked，“Have you studiedTheBookofSongs?” “Not yet，” was the reply. Confucius then said，“If you do not study it，you will not be able to express yourself properly.” (TheAnalects)

7.大同 /dàtóng/

Universal Harmony

儒家理想中的天下一家、人人平等、友爱互助的太平盛世(与“小康”相对)。儒家认为它是人类社会发展的最高阶段，类似于西方的乌托邦。其主要特征是：权力和财富归社会公有；社会平等，安居乐业；人人能得到社会的关爱；货尽其用，人尽其力。清末民初，“大同”又被用来指称西方传来的社会主义、共产主义、世界主义等概念。

This term refers to the time of peace and prosperity envisioned by Confucian scholars when all the people under heaven are one family，equal，friendly and helpful to each other (as opposed toxiaokang[小康]—minor or moderate prosperity). Confucianism takes universal harmony as the supreme stage of the development of the human society，somewhat similar to the idea of utopia in the West. Its main features are：All power and wealth belong to the whole of society；all people are equal and live and work in peace and contentment；everyone is cared for by society；everything is used to its fullest and everyone works to his maximum potential. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China，the term referred to the concepts of socialism，communism or cosmopolitanism that had been introduced to China from the West.

引例 Citation：

大道之行也，天下为公，选贤与能，讲信修睦。故人不独亲其亲，不独子其子，使老有所终，壮有所用，幼有所长，矜寡孤独废疾者，皆有所养……是谓大同。(《礼记·礼运》)

(大道实行的时代，天下为百姓所共有，品德高尚、才能突出的人被选拔出来管理社会，人与人之间讲究诚实与和睦。所以人们不仅仅爱自己的双亲，不仅仅抚养自己的子女，而是使老年人都能终其天年，壮年人都有用武之地，幼童都能得到抚育，无妻或丧妻的年老男子、无夫或丧夫的年老女子、丧父的儿童、无子女的老人以及残障者都能得到照顾和供养……这就叫做大同社会。)

When greatdaoprevails，the whole world is owned by all the people. Those who are virtuous and competent are selected as administrators. People treat each other with sincerity and live in harmony. People not only love their parents，bring up their children，but also take care of the aged. The middle-aged are able to put their talents and abilities to best use，children are well nurtured and old widows and widower，sunmarried old people，orphans，childless old people and the disabled are all provided for… This is universal harmony. (TheBookofRites)

8.德 /dé/

De

“德”有两种不同含义：其一，指个人的良好品格或人们在社会共同生活中的良好品行。“德”原初的意义与行为有关，主要指外在的道德行为，后兼指与道德行为相应的内在的情感、意识，“德”被认为是外在的道德行为与内在的道德情感、道德意识的结合。其二，指事物从“道”所得的特殊规律或特性，是幽隐无形的“道”的具体显现，也是事物产生和存在的内在依据。

The term has two different meanings. One is an individual’s fine moral character or his proper conduct in society. Firstde(德) was only related to an individual’s behavior，referring to his external moral conduct. Later，it also referred to something that combined external behavior with internal emotions and moral consciousness. The other meaning ofderefers to the special laws and features obtained fromdaoor the physical manifestation of the hidden and formlessdaoas well as the internal basis for the origination and existence of all things.

引例 Citations：

天生烝民，有物有则，民之秉彝，好是懿德。(《诗经·大雅·烝民》)

(上天降生众民，有事物就有法则，民众遵守普遍的法则，崇好这样的美德。)

Heaven gives birth to people，provides them with goods and materials，and subjects them to rules. People obey universal rules and value virtues. (TheBookofSongs)

道生之，德畜之。(《老子·五十一章》)

(道生成万物，德蓄养万物。)

Daocreates all things under heaven whiledenurtures them. (Laozi)

9.发愤著书 /fāfèn-zhùshū/

Indignation spurs one to write great works.

因在现实生活中遭遇不平而下决心写出传世著作。源出《史记·太史公自序》。西汉司马迁在遭受宫刑后，强烈的愤懑情绪成为他创作《史记》的驱动力。他借《史记》表达自己的思想、感情、志向，最终使著作流传于世。“发愤著书”后多用来解释优秀的文艺作品的创作动机和原因。这一术语揭示了优秀的文学作品的产生往往与作者个人的不幸遭遇有直接关联。后世在此基础上又衍生出“不平则鸣”“诗穷而后工”等观点。

This term means suffering injustice in life can spur one to create great works. It originated from the “Preface by the Grand Historian toRecordsoftheHistorian.” After Sima Qian，an official in the Western Han Dynasty suffered the unjust punishment of castration，his indignation spurred him to write the great work，RecordsoftheHistorian. In the book he gave expression to his thoughts，feelings and aspirations，which made the book a classic for later generations. The expression “indignation spurs one to write great works” was used to explain one of the motivations and reasons for creating masterpieces. It points to the fact that injustice suffered by an author often turns out to be the source of inspiration for him to write a literary masterpiece. It later led to similar terms like “Where there is injustice there will be an expression of indignation” and “Frustration inspires poets to write fine poems.”

引例 Citations：

惜诵以致愍兮，发愤以抒情。(屈原《九章·惜诵》)

(痛惜直言进谏却招致谗毁疏远，怀着一腔忧愤抒发衷情。)

I am saddened that my frank remonstration with the king has brought false accusations on me and left me in exile. In anguish and indignation，I am writing these poems to express my strong feelings. (Qu Yuan：CollectionofNinePieces)

《诗》三百篇，大抵圣贤发愤之所为作也。此人皆意有所郁结，不得通其道，故述往事、思来者。(司马迁《报任安书》)

(《诗经》三百篇，大都是圣贤抒发忧愤而创作出来的。这些人都是情意郁结，不能实现志向，所以记述往事，希望将来的人能够了解。)

Most of the 300 poems inTheBookofSongswere written by sages who were in anguish and indignation. They were depressed over what had prevented them from fulfilling their aspirations，so they composed poems about what had happened in the hope that future generations would understand them. (Sima Qian：ALetterofReplytoRenAn)

10.法治 /fǎzhì/

Rule by Law

以法治国，是站在君主的角度，主张君主通过制定并严格执行法令、规章来治理民众和国家(与“人治”相对)，是先秦时期法家的重要政治思想。法家的“法治”思想有赏罚分明的一面，也有过于严苛、刚硬的弊端。自汉朝以迄清朝，“法治”和“人治”，各王朝多兼而用之。近代以降，“法治”因西学东渐而被赋予新的含义。

Rule by law，as opposed to rule by man，calls for ruling a state and its people by the ruler through enacting and strictly enforcing laws and regulations. It is an important political thought of the Legalist scholars in the pre-Qin period. Rule by law meted out well-defined rewards and punishments，but tended to be excessively severe and rigid in enforcement. From the Han Dynasty all the way to the Qing Dynasty，rule by law and rule by man were exercised by various dynasties，mostly in combination. With the spread of Western thoughts to China in more recent times，rule by law acquired new meanings.

引例 Citations：

是故先王之治国也，不淫意于法之外，不为惠于法之内也。(《管子·明法》)

(所以先王治国，不在法度外恣意妄为，也不在法度内私行恩惠。)

When our forefathers ruled the state，they did not act unscrupulously in disregard of law，nor did they bestow personal favors within the framework of law. (Guanzi)

故法治者，治之极轨也，而通五洲万国数千年间。其最初发明此法治主义，以成一家言者谁乎？则我国之管子也！(梁启超《 管子评传》)

(所以法治就是治理国家的最高模式，它通行于五大洲万国的数千年历史之中。那么最初发明法治主义，成为一家之言的人是谁呢？是我国的管子啊！)

Thereforerule by law is the supreme way to rule a country. It has been exercised by numerous countries in the world for several thousand years. Who conceived this idea and developed it into a theory of governance? It was none other than our fellow countryman Guanzi! (Liang Qichao：ACriticalBiographyofGuanzi)

11.风雅颂 /fēngyǎsòng/

Ballad Court Hymnand Eulogy

《诗经》中依体裁与音乐对诗歌所分出的类型。“风(国风)”是不同地区的地方音乐，大部分是民歌；“雅”是宫廷宴享或朝会时的乐歌，分为“大雅”与“小雅”，大部分是贵族文人的作品；“颂”是宗庙祭祀用的舞曲歌辞，内容多是歌颂祖先的功业。“雅”“颂”指雅正之音，而“国风”系民间乐歌，因此“风雅颂”既是《诗经》的体裁，同时也有高雅纯正的含义。“风雅”后来一般指典雅与高雅的事物。

InTheBookofSongsthe content is divided into three categories according to style and tune：feng(ballad)，ya(court hymn)andsong(eulogy). Ballads are music from different regionsmostly folk songs. Court hymns divided intodaya(major hymn) andxiaoya(minor hymn) are songs sung at court banquets or grand ceremonies. They are mostly the works by lettered noblemen. Eulogies are ritual or sacrificial dance music and songsmost of which praise the achievements of ancestors. Court hymns and eulogies are highbrow songs while ballads are lowbrow ones. Therefore，ballads，court hymns，and eulogies not only refer to the styles ofTheBookofSongsbut also classify the songs into highbrow and lowbrow categories. Later onfengya(风雅) generally referred to anything elegant.

引例 Citations：

故《诗》有六义焉：一曰风，二曰赋，三曰比，四曰兴，五曰雅，六曰颂。(《诗大序》)

(所以《诗经》有六项基本内容，即风、赋、比、兴、雅、颂。)

ThereforeTheBookofSongshas six basic elements：ballads，narratives，analogies，associations，court hymns，and eulogies. (Preface toTheBookofSongs)

“三经”是赋、比、兴，是做诗底骨子，无诗不有，才无则不成诗。盖不是赋便是比，不是比便是兴。如风、雅、颂却是里面横串底，都有赋、比、兴，故谓之“三纬”。(《朱子语类》卷八十)

(《诗经》中的“三经”指赋、比、兴，是作诗的骨架，所有的诗都有，如果没有就不成诗。大概是没有赋就得有比，没有比就得有兴。像风、雅、颂在诗歌里面却起横向的连接作用，诗歌中都得有赋、比、兴，所以将风、雅、颂称为“三纬”。)

The three “longitudes” ofTheBookofSongsrefer to narrative，analogy and association，which serve as the frame of a poem. Without these，they could not be called poems. If narrative is not used in a poem，analogy must be used；if analogy is not used，association must be employed. Ballads from the states，court hymns，and eulogies play a connecting role in the poems. Since the poems have narrative，analogy，and association serving as the “longitudes，” ballads from the states，court hymns，and eulogies are therefore called the three “latitudes.” (ClassifiedConversationsofMasterZhuXi)

12.封建 /fēngjiàn/

Feudal System/Feudalism

即封邦建国。古代帝王将爵位、土地和人口分封给亲戚和功臣，让他们在封地内建国。各封国规模小于王室直辖领地；在遵循王室统治秩序的前提下，各封国在军、政等方面具有很高的自主性；封国之间相互制衡，共同拱卫王室。封国的世袭要经王室确认，并按规定向王室缴纳贡赋。作为一种政治制度，封建制相传始于黄帝时期，至西周时期达于完备；它与基于血缘家族制而形成的宗法制互为表里，并随之衍生出等级身份制等。秦始皇统一中国后，废除封建制，实行郡县制。自此直到清代，在中国占主导地位的是中央集权制或专制帝制；而“封建”作为专制帝制下的一种辅助性手段，或隐或显地存在着。

In feudalism，the lord granted titles of nobility，fiefs，and people to his relatives and officials and allowed them to establish dukedoms. A fief was smaller than the territory under the direct control of the lord. While obeying the rule of the lord，a dukedom enjoyed a high degree of autonomy in its military and administrative affairs. Dukedoms checked each other in the protection of the lord. A dukedom might be passed down genetically upon the approval of the lord and was required to pay tribute to him. As a political system，feudalism is believed to have started in the era of the legendary Yellow Emperor，and became established in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Feudalism was akin to the patriarchal clan system based on blood ties and gave rise to a hierarchy system. After Qinshihuang，the first emperor of Qin，reunified China，he abolished feudalism in favor of the system of prefectures and counties. From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty，centralized government or imperial autocracy was dominant in China，rendering feudalism，which existed overtly or covertly，supplementary.

引例 Citation：

彼封建者，更古圣王尧、舜、禹、汤、文、武而莫能去之。(柳宗元《封建论》)

(封建制经历了上古的圣贤之王尧、舜、禹、商汤、周文王、周武王也没有能废除它。)

Feudal system survived the eras of all ancient sages，namely Yao，Shun，Yu the Great，Tang of Shang，King Wen of Zhou，and King Wu of Zhou. (Liu Zongyuan：OnFeudalSystem)

选自“中华思想文化术语”系列图书(外语教学与研究出版社出版)