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英语形容词做主语之“场景”考察

2020-09-12高娟

文存阅刊 2020年11期
关键词:场景主语

摘要:文章从句子结构、形容词类别、形容词形式和上下文语境四个方面考察了英语形容词做主语的现象,结果显示,形容词做主语时所在的结构主要为系词结构,相关语境主要为回声语境,做主语的形容词以核心形容词为主,其形式以原级和光杆形式为主。

关键词:英语形容词;主语;系词结构;回声语境

英语的词类跟语法成分大体对应,这一点已经得到国内外语法学界的普遍共识,即名词做主宾语、动词做谓语、形容词做定语、副词做状语。动词做主宾语需要改变形态,比如用动词不定式形式,例如“To love and to be loved is the greatest happiness in the world”,或者用动名词形式,例如“Deviating from the rules will do no good to you”。形容词做主宾语一般也需要改变形态,即跟名词性词缀组合形成名词,例如:“But it is also a book of great beauty that reminds the reader that simplicity is often best”。但是,在某些结构中,一些形容词却可以没有任何形态变化的情况下直接做主宾语。本文将在高娟(2016)的基础上,详细考察英语形容词做主语这种特殊现象有哪些特点,英语形容词作宾语现象将另文讨论。

一、英语形容词做主语时句子结构的特点

英语形容词做主语时一般是在含有系词be动词的系词句中充当主语。按照目前学界的主流观点(如Heycock & Kroch,1999;Rothstein,2001;刘爱英、韩景泉,2004;Heller,2005;Arimoto,2006; Birner, Kaplan & Ward,2007等等),英语系词句按照其语义类型一般可以分为述谓性系词句和等同性系词句两种,尽管自Higgins(1979)以来,学者们对系词句的分类也有其他意见(如den Dikken,2006;Mikkelsen,2005等等)。由于对系词句的分类并不是本文的核心问题,本文采用简洁的分类方法,认为系词句包括述谓性系词句和等同性系词句两大类。英语形容词做主语在这两类系词句中都有体现。

英语形容词在述谓性系词句中做主语时,谓语部分里的“be”动词之后可以跟三类短语:形容词短语、名词短语和介词短语。谓语部分里“be”动词后跟形容词短语的情况最为常见,而且其中的形容词以评价类形容词为主。请看下列例句:

(一)a. Yet, simple is neither easy nor predictable.

b.  I see people who think big is better, but it isnt.

谓语部分里“be”动词后跟名词短语的情况相对少一些,例如:

(二)a. Yes, again, less bad is good news. The rate of deterioration in the foreclosures is slowing.

b. Mind if I tell you something, Ink? Serious is your whole problem.

谓语部分里“be”动词后跟介词短语的情况偶尔会出现,例如:

(三)Its all so bleak and beautiful that I want to do something crazy, and…. Crazy is in the air, and in the ground too...

英语形容词在等同性系词句中做主语时,可以细分为两种情况,即根据系词前后的成分是否相同分为严格的等同性系词句和非严格的等同性系词句。形容词在严格的等同性系词句中做主语如(4)所示:

(四)a. And I think that, you know, we have to draw a line and say, listen, right is right; wrong is wrong.

b. you know, bad is bad, no matter what it is.

英语形容词在非严格的等同性系词句中做主语时,be后面的部分可以是无核关系小句,其中以what引导的居多(5),其他wh-词引导的比较少(6);也可以是名词短语(7)。

(五)And as Waters knows best, simple is what its all about.

(六)A: Where is she?

B: Dead is where she is.

(七) Sad is the man who is asked for a story and can not come up with one.

除了在系词句中做主语,英語形容词还可以在非系词句中做主语,此时的谓语动词既可以是否定式(8),也可以是肯定式的情况(9)。

(八)Remember, invisible doesnt necessarily mean unreachable.

(九)a. As her grandmother used to say,“ Handsome is as handsome does. ”

二、英语形容词做主语时形容词的类别特点

能做主语的英语形容词本身一般是既能做定语又能做谓语的核心形容词(Quirk et al, 1985),从上面所举例句可见一斑。但情况也不是那么绝对,偶有边缘形容词做主语的情况,例(10)表明一般只做谓语的形容词也可以做主语。

(十)What she had told her precious babies was truer than even she had imagined. Alive was always alive, even when dead was better.

三、英语形容词做主语时形容词的形式特点

英语形容词做主语时一般都是不受修饰的形容词原级,也有形容词的比较级形式如(11),目前暂未发现形容词的最高级形式出现在主语位置的情况。

(十一)a. We must all change our thinking about aging. Older does not mean sicker.

b. Check the unit price, for cereal especially. Bigger does not always mean cheaper.

形容词受副词修饰时,最常见的是受how的修饰(12),也可以受very、not或其他副词的修饰(13)。

(十二)a. “So how old is old?”“I used to think being 30 was old,” says Cindy Lay.

b.  Like they can't decide just how close to get. How close is safe. Every day they see each other..

(十三)a. The judge said he sympathized with Buckeyes being upset over her long court ordeal, very upset does not state a cause of action.

b. Indeed, in my opinion, not guilty does not necessarily mean innocent.

c. Such a scheme would not necessarily (really should not) record the bias of progress, for geologically young does not mean anatomically complex ...

四、英语形容词做主语时的语境特点

从上文中所举例句可以看出,英语形容词做主语时主要出现在有回声(Sperber & Wilson, 1995)现象的语境里。最常见的回声语境是对话语境,即说话人A使用了一个形容词,说话人B接着就使用该形容词做主语,上面大多数例句都属于这种情况。或者是同一个说话人,在使用一个形容词之后,接着使用该形容词做主语(14),偶尔也会出现形容词先做主语的情况(15)。

(十四)“The two of you are very different...,” she said. “Different is right.”

(十五)Mind if I tell you something,Ink?Serious is your whole problem. Youre too serious.

无论是哪一种情况,第一次出现的形容词一般是做谓语,上面所举例句基本上都是这样。也有第一次出现的形容词做定语的情况(16),但相对来说比较少见。

(十六)The forum will soon be joined by a new hotel and garden complex that will further update Monacos profile. New is good for business, but Monaco still does well by its traditional attractions.

除了前后使用两个完全相同的形容词,英语形容词做主语出现的回声语境还有其他多种表现形式,比较明确的语境比如前后使用同根词的不同形式(17a)或者前后两个形容词都同属于一个维度(17b):

(十七)a. I whistled softly and rubbed my hands together to assure me this was reality... Real seems fake. It gets easier to pull out later.

b. Warm tap water is good. Hot is not better.

也有比较隐晦的回声语境,比如后面使用的形容词阐释了前面的语境,(18a)里“new”阐释了“beginners”的某方面的属性,(18b)里的“sure”表达出了前面“He nods”的含义,(18c)里的“unusual”是對前一句“他们本来也是容易得到坏运气的”所传递含义“他们有了不同寻常的结果”的总结。

(十八)a. Beginners luck? Maybe. But new isnt always good.

b. Is it really so serious? I say. My brother puts down the mug. He rubs his face. He nods. —Sure is awful. He doesnt answer.

c. “They could just as easily be bad luck. Unusual is not necessarily good,” Bernie mused.

或者后面使用的形容词是前面提到维度或对象的一种具体体现或评价,例如,(19a)里“stupid”是“many things”的一个个案,(19b)里的“big”“high”和“wide”都是前面“scale”的具体体现。

(十九)a. Hes many things, but stupid isnt one of them.

b. Most critically, the man knew scale. He knew how big was too big, how high was too high, and how wide was too wide.

英语形容词出现在主语位置时唯一不需要上下文语境的情况是在表示强调的等同性系词句里,此时原本位于be动词后做谓语的形容词作为被强调的对象出现在主语位置上,例如:

(二十)a. Proud of his daughters seems to be what he is. (Heycock & Kroch, 1999)

b. Honest is what I want him to be. (ibid)

结语:本文主要对英语形容词出现在主语位置上的现象进行了考察,从形容词主语所在的句子结构、做主语的形容词的类别、做主语的形容词的形式以及形容词做主语时的语境四个方面阐释了形容词做主语时的一些特点:形容词做主语时以出现在系词句中为主,出现在非系词句中为辅;做主语的形容词以核心形容词为主,边缘形容词为辅;做主语的形容词以原级为主比较级和最高级为辅,以光杆形式为主受副词修饰为辅;形容词做主语时出现的语境以回声语境为主强调语境为辅。

参考文献:

[1] Arimoto,Masatake. Copular clauses in English [J]. Nanzan Linguistics,2005(3): 31-59.

[2] Birner,Betty J.,Jeffrey P. Kaplan & Gregory Ward. Functional compositionality and the interaction of discourse constraints [J]. Language,2007(83): 323-349.

[3] den Dikken, Marcel. Relators and Linkers. The Syntax of Predication, Predicate Inversion, and Copulas[ M]. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2006.

[4] Heller, Daphna. Identity and Information. Semantic and Pragmatic Aspects of Speci? cational Sentences [D]. Rutgers University, New Brunswick,NJ,2005.

[5] Heycock,C. and A. Kroch. Pseudocleft connectedness: Implications for the LF interface level [J]. Linguistic Inquiry,1999(30): 365-397.

[6] Higgins, F. R. The Pseudo-Cleft Construction in English [M]. New York: Garland, 1979.

[7] Mikkelsen, Line. Copular Clauses. Speci? cation, Predication and Equation. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2005.

[8] Quirk Randolph et al. A comprehensive grammar of the English language [M]. London and New York: Longman Incorporation, 1985.

[9] Rothstein, S. Predication and their subjects [M]. Kluwer: Dordrecht, 2001.

[10] Sperber, D. and Wilson, D. Relevance: Communication and Cognition [M]. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.

[11] 高娟. 漢英形容词比较研究[D]. 华中师范大学博士学位论文,2016.

[12] 刘爱英,韩景泉. 论英语系动词结构[J]. 现代外语,2004(4): 360-369.

注释:本文中以下英语例句除特别标明外均来自于COCA语料库。

作者简介:

高娟(1981年—),女,河南扶沟人,讲师,博士,研究方向:句法学。

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