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社会工作与替代性创伤:情感卷入的风险与机遇

2018-05-21理查德英格拉姆RichardIngram伊恩巴伦IanBarron张骁健邢朝国

社会建设 2018年2期
关键词:替代性社会工作者社工

理查德·英格拉姆(Richard Ingram) 伊恩·巴伦(Ian Barron)张骁健(译) 邢朝国(校)

社会工作的一项关键工作在于建立关系和运用同理心,在此背景下,考虑社工替代性创伤的普遍性及其影响变得尤为重要。尽管人们对实务过程中管理主义的主导地位和社工与服务对象关系的真诚性存在很多争议,但很显然,在社会工作实务经验中,社工的人际层面和自我层面都是极为重要的。

服务关系的建立要求社工全身心地关注那些希望与其提升信任、理解和洞察力的服务对象,并与之建立真诚的联系。这就要求社工用一种赫尼西(Hennessey. R)①Hennessey, R. Relationship skills in social work, London: Sage. 2011, p.8.所说的同理心的方式来开展工作,“一种在情感方面聆听他人通过口头语言和非口头语言表达出的内容的方式,一种需要社工在与服务对象的关系之中投入自我的社工实务方式”。芬顿(Fenton.J)②Fenton, J. Values in social work: reconnecting with social justice. London: Palgrave. 2016.和英格拉姆(Ingram.R)③Ingram, R. Exploring emotions within formal and informal forums: messages from social work practitioners. British Journal of Social Work, 2013.45(3).也提出这种实务方式要求建立情感层面的联系,社工要具备情感上的反身性,同时还要具备理解他人情感世界的意愿。虽然这有时看起来像是社会工作者理所当然的不可辩驳的特质,但这也可能显露或引发社工个人的复杂情感。

情感联结对社工实务而言是重要的,也是必不可少的,但这也会对社工产生潜在危害。情感联结的影响是多变的、多方面的。“创伤事件”的本质可以是社工亲眼目睹或亲身参与的直接经验,也可以是在与他人交谈过程中得来的间接经验。另外,这种“事件”可能是单一的,也可能是由创伤性反应引起的相关问题的集合。当把个人经历、创伤历史和用来处理不幸的弹性因素考虑在内时,情况就会变得更加多变。鉴于社工实务情境的丰富多样性,把创伤作为一个重要议题来看待是至关重要的,以确保对创伤的警醒和预防。

麦卡恩(McCann.L)和皮尔曼(Pearlman.L)①McCann, L.and Pearlman, L. Vicarious traumatization: a framework for understanding the psychological effects of working with victims.Journal of Traumatic stress, 1990, 3(1): 131-149.最先界定了替代性创伤这一概念,那时人们普遍认为对创伤群体的研究有加剧创伤症状的风险。早期的研究聚焦于紧急救助和灾难援助,然而,由于研究多是描述性的而非实证的,证据的质量受到了限制。②Sabin-Farrell, R. and Turpin, G. Vicarious traumatization: Implications for the mental health of workers. Clinical Psychology Review, 2003(23): 32-36.近期的替代性创伤研究更多是由专业人员开展的,如急救人员、灾难援助人员、护士、医生、药剂师、记者和热线工作人员。③Nimmo, A. and Huggard, P. A systematic review of the measurement of compassion fatigue, vicarious trauma, and secondary traumatic stress in physicians. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2013(1): 37-44.一些研究已经涉及与社工经验相关的潜在性创伤,鉴于此,本文主要阐述替代性创伤的概念、不同职业群体的发病率、从业者患替代性创伤的风险以及预防。本文最后聚焦社工替代性创伤的最新研究。

一、替代性创伤的概念

在文献综述中,有一系列术语可以用来描述服务受创伤群体的专业人员的负面情绪,如继发性创伤压力、精疲力竭、替代性创伤和同情疲累。精疲力竭被认为是“情绪超负荷和情绪耗竭,以人格解体④人格解体是个体实际存在的普通感觉处于丧失的状态,表现为不现实或自我疏远,不能控制自己的动作和言语的感觉——译者注。、长期情绪紧张和个人成就感降低为特征”。另一方面,继发性创伤压力指的是“因了解到重要的人所经历的创伤事件而引发的行为和情感,这是一种因帮助或希望帮助遭受了创伤或不幸的人而产生的压力”。⑤Figley, C.R. Compassion fatigue: Toward a new understanding of the costs of caring. New York: Brunner/Mazel. 1995.相比之下,替代性创伤是一种更为严重的“因对案主‘创伤材料’的移情投入而引发的社工个人的内心体验”。⑥Pearlman, L.A. and Saakvitne, K.W. Trauma and the therapist: Countertransference and vicarious traumatization in psychotherapy with incest survivors. New York: WW Norton & Co.1995.无论是在专业领域还是在个人生活领域,替代性创伤都是累积、持久和明显的。替代性创伤也被视为同情疲累,指的是因卷入案主的创伤经历而产生痛苦,进而导致专业人员在情感层面和认知层面出现反应能力下降的现象。⑦Boscarino, J.A., Figley, C.R. and Adams, R.E. Compassion fatigue following the September 11 terrorist attacks: A study of secondary trauma among New York City social workers. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 2004, 6(2): 57.雷(Ray, S.L)等人⑧Ray, S.L., Wong, C., White, D. and Heaslip, K. Compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, work life conditions, and burnout among frontline mental health care professionals. Traumatology, 2013, 19(4):255-267.强调,服务创伤患者的专业人员需要具备较高的护理水平,但也可能会引发他们生理层面和心理层面的同情疲累。杜波依斯(Dubois.A.L)⑨DuBois, A.L. An inquiry of the lived experiences and contextual understandings of early childhood special educators related to children's trauma. Duquesne University. 2010.指出,如果没有注意到替代性创伤的症状,替代性创伤对人的心理健康产生的影响会是长期的。很明显,回应这些困难且复杂的情感层面的实务问题,会使个别社工的健康受到严重损害,也会对从业者的功能和决策产生重大影响。

与此相反,有些研究者更加关注替代性创伤而非病理,关注什么是服务创伤群体之后引起的正常反应和预期反应。①Jenkins, S.R. and Baird, S.Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma: A validational study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2002, 15(5): 423-432. Bride, B.E. Prevalence of secondary traumatic stress among social workers. Social Work, 2007, 52(1): 63-70.另外,不是所有研究者都将替代性创伤简单地看作是一种负面反应。阿诺德(Arnold.D)等②Arnold, D., Calhoun, L.G., Tedeschi, R., &Cann, A. Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth in Psychotherapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,2005(43): 239-263. Conrad, D. and Kellar-Guenther, Y. Compassion fatigue, burnout, and compassion satisfaction among Colorado child protection workers.Child Abuse & Neglect, 2006, 30(10):1071-1080.认为替代性创伤可能带来替代性创伤后成长,它能够提高专业人员的洞察力和意志力,比如,赫尔南德斯(Hernandez.P)等③Hernández, P., Gangsei, D., & Engstrom, D. Vicarious resilience: A new concept in work with those who survive trauma. Family Process,2007, 46(2): 229-241.把替代性创伤适应力描述为社工在服务创伤人群时表现出的忍耐力和恢复力的提高。这表明,替代性创伤可能是实务中建立的情感关系的恶性后果,但它本身是极有价值的,如果运用得当,可以提高社工的实务能力。

二、替代性创伤的职业患病率

学者们研究不同职业领域中替代性创伤的性质和范围。范斯坦(Feinstein.A)等④Feinstein, A., Owen, J. and Blair, N. A hazardous profession: war, journalists, and psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 2002, 159(9): 1570-1575.发现近1/5的战地记者都有抑郁症状,他们大多用酒精进行自我治疗。同样程度的继发性创伤压力也出现在服务精神病患者的工作人员身上。⑤Kulka, R.A., Schlenger, W.E., Fairbank, J.A., Hough, R.L., Jordan, B.K., Marmar, C.R. and Weiss, D.S. Trauma and the Vietnam war generation: Report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. NewYork:Brunner/Mazel.1990.法拉(Farrar AR)⑥Farrar AR: Vicarious Traumatization MentalHealth Professional. APAGS Newsletter. 2002.发现10%的灾难救援人员都表现出替代性创伤症状。同样地,12%的急救服务人员都经历过临床水平的创伤后应激障碍。⑦Van Der Ploeg, E. and Kleber, R.J. Acute and chronic job stressors among ambulance personnel: predictors of health symptoms. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 2003, 60(1): 140-146.与心理治疗师相比,警察的创伤性应激障碍症状要更明显一些。⑧Follette, V.M., Polusny, M.M. and Milbeck, K. Mental health and law enforcement professionals: Trauma history, psychological symptoms, and impact of providing services to child sexual abuse survivors. Professional psychology: Research and practice, 1994, 25(3): 275.目前少量的研究对社会工作者的替代性创伤进行评估。梅尔德伦(Meldrum.L)⑨Meldrum, L., King, R. and Spooner, D. Secondary traumatic stress in case managers working in community mental health services. In: Figley C.R,(Ed). Treating compassion fatigue. New York, NY: Routledge. 2002: 85-106.发现澳大利亚的社区心理辅导人员,包括社会工作者在内,都经历过继发性创伤障碍,一直从事创伤人群服务会使社工变得习惯和麻木,这反过来会导致社工在情感上更为脆弱。⑩Glover, H. Emotional numbing: A possible endorphin-mediated phenomenon associated with post-traumatic stress disorders and other allied psychopathologic states. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1992, 5(4):643-675.布莱德(Bride.B.E)①Jenkins, S.R. and Baird, S.Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma: A validational study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2002, 15(5): 423-432. Bride, B.E. Prevalence of secondary traumatic stress among social workers. Social Work, 2007, 52(1): 63-70.对282名硕士学位层次的社会工作者进行了继发性创伤压力调查,结果显示,他们之中有28%的社工有轻生的念头,25%的社工表现出情感麻木,14%的社工没法回想起服务案主的过程,还有5%的人从他们所经历的创伤中恢复过来。康拉德(Conrad.D)和凯勒(Kellar-Guenthar.Y)②Arnold, D., Calhoun, L.G., Tedeschi, R., &Cann, A. Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth in Psychotherapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,2005(43): 239-263. Conrad, D. and Kellar-Guenther, Y. Compassion fatigue, burnout, and compassion satisfaction among Colorado child protection workers.Child Abuse & Neglect, 2006, 30(10):1071-1080.发现在科罗拉多州的363名儿童保护工作者(也是社会工作者)中,有约一半的人经历过同情疲累,然而,他们中的70%仍然有较高的职业满意度。

三、替代性创伤的风险因素

替代性创伤的风险因素一方面包含了专业同理①Wasco, S.M., Campbell, R. and Clark, M. A Multiple Case Study of Rape Victim Advocates' Self-Care Routines: The Influence of Organizational Context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 2002, 30(5): 731-760.iMorrison, Z. 'Feeling Heavy': Vicarious Trauma and Other Issues Facing Those who Work in the Sexual Assault Field. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007(4): 1-13.,另一方面又包含了与创伤患者或创伤资料的长期接触。②Dunkley, J. and Whelan, T.A. Vicarious traumatisation: Current status and future directions. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 2006,34(1): 107-116.Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2006, 6(1): 1.例如,专业人员通过反思自己的悲伤、恐惧和其他强烈的情绪来适应创伤者的痛苦,这就会在个人层面影响到专业人员。看令人震惊的图片、聆听和目睹服务对象支离破碎的信仰,这可能会导致服务者的自我认同、世界观和精神发生变化。③Janoff-Bulman, R. Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: The Free Press. 1992; Cunningham, M. Impact of trauma work on social work clinicians: Empirical findings. Social Work, 2003, 48(4): 451-459.Iliffe, G. and Steed, L.G. Exploring the counselor's experience of working with perpetrators and survivors of domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2000, 15(4): 393-412.就服务者自身创伤经历对其替代性创伤形成的影响而言,相关证据是混乱的。④Morrison, Z. 'Feeling Heavy': Vicarious Trauma and Other Issues Facing Those who Work in the Sexual Assault Field. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007(4): 1-13.DeAngelis, T. Normalizing practitioners’ stress. Monitor on Psychology, 2002: 7.鲍勃(Bober.T)和雷格尔(Regehr.C)认为有创伤病史并且仍在服务创伤人群的社工应该寻求支持,以在早期阶段对这些创伤病史进行反思和讨论。⑤Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2006, 6(1): 1.

替代性创伤的一个风险因素是专业人员所服务个案的创伤程度。在工作中,更多地接触性虐待个案的专业人员⑥Schauben, L.J. and Frazier, P.A. Vicarious trauma the effects on female counselors of working with sexual violence survivors. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19951, 9(1): 49-64.,尤其是在接触儿童性虐待⑦Cunningham, M. Impact of trauma work on social work clinicians: Empirical findings. Social Work, 2003, 48(4): 451-459.、性犯罪者⑧Moulden, H.M. and Firestone, P. Vicarious traumatization: The impact on therapists who work with sexual offenders. Trauma, Violence, &Abuse, 2007, 8(1): 67-83.或曾有过创伤经历的案主时,专业人员患替代性创伤的几率更高。服务创伤个体的时间长短是预测替代性创伤的因素。⑨Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2006, 6(1): 1.但是贝尔德和詹金斯发现从业者的精神痛苦与其服务的创伤个数之间无相关性。⑩Baird, S. and Jenkins, S.R. Vicarious traumatization, secondary traumatic stress, and burnout in sexual assault and domestic violence agency staff. Violence and Victims, 2003, 18(1): 71.有关专业人士从业年限的研究也提供了一些相反的证据。①Wasco, S.M., Campbell, R. and Clark, M. A Multiple Case Study of Rape Victim Advocates' Self-Care Routines: The Influence of Organizational Context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 2002, 30(5): 731-760.iMorrison, Z. 'Feeling Heavy': Vicarious Trauma and Other Issues Facing Those who Work in the Sexual Assault Field. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007(4): 1-13.鲍勃和雷格尔发现工作年限与对亲密关系的消极信念呈正相关。②Dunkley, J. and Whelan, T.A. Vicarious traumatisation: Current status and future directions. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 2006,34(1): 107-116.Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2006, 6(1): 1.与此相反,艾利夫(Iliffe.G)和斯蒂德(Steed.L.G)③Janoff-Bulman, R. Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: The Free Press. 1992; Cunningham, M. Impact of trauma work on social work clinicians: Empirical findings. Social Work, 2003, 48(4): 451-459.Iliffe, G. and Steed, L.G. Exploring the counselor's experience of working with perpetrators and survivors of domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2000, 15(4): 393-412.发现服务家庭暴力的社工很难有替代性创伤的征兆,因为随着时间的增长,他们早已对此习以为常。另外,德安吉利斯(DeAngelis.T)④Morrison, Z. 'Feeling Heavy': Vicarious Trauma and Other Issues Facing Those who Work in the Sexual Assault Field. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007(4): 1-13.DeAngelis, T. Normalizing practitioners’ stress. Monitor on Psychology, 2002: 7.提出,替代性创伤的风险在于没有认识到专业人员因服务痛苦情绪的案主而产生的情绪波动。

在组织层面也已经确认了一系列风险因素。非支持性管理、低薪资水平和提供服务的挑战都是精疲力竭率较高的预测因素。①Bell, H., Kulkarni, S. and Dalton, L. Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 2003, 84(4): 463-470.Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention,2006, 6(1): 1.鲍勃和雷格尔②Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention,2006, 6(1): 1.确认了组织因素的影响,反对把讨论重点放在专业性应对策略上,因为这可能会导致把替代性创伤的发生归责于个人,从而导致专业人士更不可能主动寻求帮助。

四、预 防

一系列保护因素都可以用来预防替代性创伤。埃德尔森(Eidelson.R.J)③Eidelson, R.J., D'alessio, G.R. and Eidelson, J.I. The impact of September 11 on psychologists. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 2003, 34(2): 144.和他的同事认为高度的使命感是一种可以预防替代性创伤的保护因素,对于志愿者来说尤其适用。受过良好训练的专业人员,尤其是接受过创伤知情方面训练的专业人员和有稳定的高质量的督导的专业人员,知道如何更好地预计和处理替代性创伤。④Barron, I., Abdallah, G. and Heltne, U. Randomized control trial of Teaching Recovery Techniques in rural occupied Palestine: effect on adolescent dissociation. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 2006, 25(9): 955-973.

自我关怀、自我培养、身体健康、休闲活动以及知道何时应该寻求帮助都是有助于降低替代性创伤风险的因素。保持工作之外的兴趣爱好可以降低专业人员的压力水平,有计划的休息和调整能够为专业人士灌输希望、明晰生活和工作的界限,这些都可以增加专业人士的适应力。⑤Bell, H., Kulkarni, S. and Dalton, L. Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 2003, 84(4): 463-470.自我关怀的关键在于:改变社工对自己经历的看法,把紧张的情绪表达出来,了解自己的身体和生理感觉,与别人进行心灵交流,获得家庭支持,参加娱乐活动。社工还需要避免在工作之余接触创伤资料,比如创伤的电影和书籍。⑥Wasco, S.M. and Campbell, R. Emotional reactions of rape victim advocates: A multiple case study of anger and fear. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2002(26): 120-130.

很重要的一点是,若预防的责任完全落在个人身上,可能会使个体从业者遭受成为“问题人”的病态化风险。例如,有研究发现,组织层面的支持有助于促进工作人员给遭受性侵害者提供持久的服务。⑦Wasco, S.M., Campbell, R. and Clark, M. A Multiple Case Study of Rape Victim Advocates' Self-Care Routines: The Influence of Organizational Context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 2002, 30(5): 731-760.支持性的组织环境包括工作之余的空间、持续的专业提升和专业督导。⑧Bell, H., Kulkarni, S. and Dalton, L. Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 2003, 84(4): 463-470.替代性创伤被视为一种职业风险,因此社工应当有机会去宣泄和诉说自己的创伤经历。⑨Wasco, S.M. and Campbell, R. Emotional reactions of rape victim advocates: A multiple case study of anger and fear. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2002(26): 120-130.莫里森(Morrison.T)⑩Morrison, T. Emotional Intelligence, Emotion and Social Work: Context, Characteristics, Complications and Contribution. The British Journal of Social Work, 2007(37): 245-263.强调了工作场所的政策是怎样提升或抑制了这些因素。鲍勃和雷格尔①Bell, H., Kulkarni, S. and Dalton, L. Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 2003, 84(4): 463-470.Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention,2006, 6(1): 1.指出预防替代性创伤的重点是机构提供具有安全性和支持性的工作环境。

五、社会工作与替代性创伤

尽管替代性创伤在社会工作者中的潜在发生率较高,但是应只有少量文献明确探讨了这一议题。考克斯(Cox.K)和斯坦纳(Steiner.S)①Cox, K., amd Steiner, S. Preserving commitment to social work service through the prevention of vicarious trauma. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 2013, 10(1): 52-60.探讨了社工应对替代性创伤的策略,这些策略可以缓解替代性创伤的症状、减轻替代性创伤的影响,他们强调接触创伤事件和创伤资料会使社工产生自我怀疑感和愤怒感。齐格弗里德(Siegfried.)②Siegfried, C. Child Welfare Work and Secondary Traumatic Stress. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 2008.也再次确认了与继发性创伤压力有关的症状,提出同理心是一种关键性风险因素,因为它使社工暴露在案主的创伤事件和叙述中,导致社工士气低落、健康不佳、缺席会谈。尼莫(Nimmo.A)和哈格德(Haggard.P)③Nimmo, A. and Huggard, P. A systematic review of the measurement of compassionfatigue, vicarious trauma, and secondary traumatic stress in physicians. Australasian Journalof Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2013, 2013(1): 37-44.在文献综述中比较了同情疲劳、继发性创伤压力和替代性创伤,特别强调了替代性创伤与实务中常见的复杂情感反应不同,并提出了它们相似的症状可能会使人们难以意识到替代性创伤的出现。乌略亚(Ulloa.I)和罗斯(Rose.J)④Ulloa, I,. and Rose, J. Perceptions of social worker professionals with regards to the prevalence of vicarious trauma among social workers in the child welfare field. California State University.2011.关注儿童福利工作者对替代性创伤流行程度的认知,并归纳了替代性创伤的影响,如健忘、攻击性、梦魇、疲劳、动机缺乏和头痛。

虽然替代性创伤对社工个人的影响是非常明显和深刻的,但是对社工的替代性创伤也有一些有效的支持。英格拉姆(Ingram.R)⑤Ingram, R, Exploring Emotions within Formal and Informal Forums: Messages from Social Work Practitioners. The British Journal of Social Work, 2015, 45(3): 896-913,提到,在情感支持和情感反应方面,督导可以起到广泛的治疗作用。曼宁·琼斯(Manning-Jones.S)等⑥Manning-Jones, S., Terte, I., and Stephens, C. Vicarious posttraumatic growth: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2015, 5(2): 125-139.提出督导可以减轻与替代性创伤有关的孤立感和其他严重的负面情绪。齐格弗里德⑦Siegfried, C. Child Welfare Work and Secondary Traumatic Stress. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 2008.也承认在治疗方面,督导起到了至关重要的作用,但同时也提出了更多建议和策略以强调在不同领域给予社工支持的必要性:(1)职业层面:服务的个案数和常规的高质量督导;(2)机构层面:定期休息、年假以及来自同事的支持;(3)个人层面:自我关怀(健康、锻炼、反思和精神活动)以及保持工作和生活平衡的能力;(4)应对策略:对实务的情感层面进行自我反思。

曼宁·琼斯等⑧Manning-Jones, S., Terte, I., and Stephens, C. Vicarious posttraumatic growth: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2015, 5(2): 125-139.对多个领域的替代性创伤后成长进行了文献梳理,如社会工作、心理治疗、葬礼主持和医务人员。齐格弗里德指出,通过反思和自我关怀,社工有机会辨识自己的优势,帮助别人获得希望。斯普莱文斯(Splevins.K)等⑨Splevins K, Mireskandari S, Clayton K, Blaszczynski A: Prevalence of adolescent problem gambling, related harms and help-seeking behaviors among an Australian population. Journal of Gambling Studies. 2010,( 26): 189-204.提出,如果同理心能够用来突出我们自己的优势,进而成为未来实务工作的动力,那么同理心实际上就成为了一个保护性因素。⑩Cox, K., amd Steiner, S. Preserving commitment to social work service through the prevention of vicarious trauma. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 2013, 10(1): 52-60.另外,巴林顿(Barrington.A.J)和莎士比亚·芬奇(Shakespeare-Finch.J)①Barrington, A. J., & Shakespeare-Finch, J. Working with refugee survivors of torture and trauma: an opportunity for vicarious posttraumatic growth. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 2013, 26(1): 89-105.以及乌达克(Hudek.C)②Hudek, C. Dealing with vicarious trauma in the context of global fear. The Folio, 2007, p95-101.注意到社工与服务对象之间的关系质量可以作为社工在创伤事件后获得康复和成长能力的标识,他们认为这是正能量和支持的来源。

社工在工作中经常接触有过创伤经历的案主,并且要在同理心关系中把这些创伤事件表达出来。出于实务工作的需要,社工应该获得支持和机会去反思和处理他们实务中的情感内容。③Ruch, G. The contemporary context of relationship based practice. In Ruch, G., Turney, D. & Ward, A.(Eds.) Relationship based social work: getting to the heart ofpractice.London:Jessica Kingsley. 2010.督导就是一种可以提供这样支持的重要形式,它需要识别由实务引起的有意或无意的情绪活动和情绪反应,这对提升社工决的策质量和幸福感起着重要作用。④Hair, H. The Purpose and Duration of Supervision, and the Training and Discipline of Supervisors: What Social Workers Say They Need to Provide Effective Services. British Journal of Social Work, 2012, 43(8): 1562-1588.这就要求督导通过“消极感受力”过程来“把握”社工,在这个过程中,实务中复杂而未解决的情感问题被允许和合法化,而不是暂时搁置或草草解决。

柯林斯(Collins.S)⑤Collins, S. Social workers, resilience, positive emotions and optimism. Practice, 2007, 19(4): 255-269.提醒我们,在复杂的实务环境中,社会工作者处理问题、得到成长的抗逆力与社工的乐观态度以及进行反思的动机密不可分。这些乐观态度和反思动机为社工自身提供了部分保护因素,使社工努力与希望、自豪和自省等积极情绪联系起来,这正是社工解决棘手问题、得到解决方案和把握机遇所需要的。杜牙地(Tugade.M.M)和弗雷德里克森(Frederickson.B.L)⑥Tugade, M.M& Frederickson, B.L. Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal Personality and Social Psychology, 2004, p320-333.提出这些属性可以提高创造力和注意力,但是社工需要依靠组织结构和组织支持来提升这些属性。

六、角色卷入和认同

社会工作作为一种职业,需要对替代性创伤卷入有明确认知,需要采取措施以落实必要的支持来预防替代性创伤或适当控制其影响。在实务过程中,社工产生情感反应和情感联结是不可避免的,这在决策制定、关系建立和评估方面都是至关重要的。这种情感知觉使得社工能够在不同领域中做出判断。例如,只有当社工可以利用他的经验、知识和情感反应去确定“公正”的界限,对“公正”形成理解,他对社会公正的追求才是有意义的。如果我们认同在社会工作领域的诸多情境中,实务工作的人际层面和自我层面都是至关重要的,那么有关同理心和情感联结的风险和机遇都是不可避免的。

这就引出了职业认同的概念,虽然这一点在职业规范、职业标准和专业知识中也有所表现,⑦Ingram, R. Understanding Emotions in Social Work: theory, practice and reflection. Maidenhead: Open University Press,2015.但是它也存在于“自我意识”之中。⑧Ibarra, H. Provisional selves: Experimenting with image and identity in professionaladaptation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1999, 44(4): 764-791.这种“自我意识”植根于个人或职业的道德、知识、角色和经历中。既然社会工作者与创伤事件的接触难以避免,我们要做的不是逃避创伤,而是要认识创伤并加强对它的安全防范和警惕。诚然,对于社工来说,创伤的触发和阈值是难以估摸的,这更加突显了社工职业认同的必要性,而这种认同包含了每个社工在实务中的体验和经历。

图1 一种系统的情感卷入性实务方法与替代性创伤

图1从预防、应对、干预三个关键阶段构建了替代性创伤的防治模式。需要强调的是,个人层面、组织层面与专业层面在每个阶段的行为都不同,但它们可以互补。在每个阶段中,不同层面之间都存在联系。

七、结 论

本文强调,在社会工作中,需要在承认实务中情感卷入的重要性与对替代性创伤的迹象和影响有所警觉之间保持平衡。这是一个复杂的过程,它会受到充满相互作用的环境的影响,包括创伤显露的程度和性质,社会工作者的知识、技巧和态度,组织文化和组织支持,对服务对象情感卷入的职业期望等。本文为专业社工、社工机构和社工职业提供了一个模式,帮助其面对替代性创伤的挑战。作者认为,该模式可适用于国内外的诸多职业。

社工实务建议

1.社会工作者与服务对象之间的情感联结为社工的专业判断提供了重要信息(替代性创伤的风险与情感显露的平衡)。

2.社会工作者应当接受有关创伤知识的专业训练,使他们更好地理解服务群体和自身反应。

3.替代性创伤需要被纳入社会工作者的风险因素,社工所在组织更应该承认这一点。

4.社工组织需要对模式的使用进行探索,建立组织文化,提供实务支持,保护社会工作者。

研究建议

需要在以下几个方面进行实证研究:

1.评估模式应用于社工组织和类似职业的有效性。

2.识别社会工作者患替代性创伤的性质和程度。

3.对社会工作实务的情感维度进行定性研究。

4.对国际社会工作实务的情感维度进行跨文化分析。

Social Work and Vicarious Trauma: Risks and Opportunities of Emotional Engagement Richard Ingram, Ian Barron

Abstract: The current paper aims to encourage discussion of the potential impact of vicarious trauma for social workers.The paper locates this knowledge in the context of relationship based practice and the significance of emotional engagement and exposure across practice contexts. The paper draws from literature specific to the social work profession as well as other human services in a range of international contexts. Implications are explored for prevention, ways of coping, and intervention of vicarious trauma at the level of practitioners, services and the social work profession. The key finding from this paper is that there is a balance to be struck between acknowledging the importance of emotional engagement in social work practice and the need for awareness of signs and impact of various trauma. A model is provided to enable practitioners, organisations and the social work profession to address the emotional dimensions of social work practice within contexts of vicarious trauma. This model is applicable to social workers in national and international contexts. Recommendations for practice suggest a range of opportunities to manage the aforementioned balancing act through awareness training, supervision, self-care, organisational culture and personal/professional identity.Recommendations are made future research including assessing the nature and extent of traumatisation of social workers and strategies for prevention, coping and intervention.

Keywords: vicarious trauma; emotions; social work; professionalism; supervision

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