快速命名(RAN)与阅读障碍
2015-03-21南京师范大学文学院江苏南京210097
(南京师范大学文学院,江苏南京210097)
尚永璨
快速命名(RAN)与阅读障碍
(南京师范大学文学院,江苏南京210097)
尚永璨
RAN已经成为预测儿童阅读障碍的最有价值的因素之一。其与语音加工和正字法的关系是焦点:前者上,一是二者对阅读障碍的预测作用强弱,多数观点认为语音意识的作用更突出;二是二者的相互关系,部分认为RAN应该归为语音加工的一部分;而包括双重缺陷理论在内的研究结果表明RAN独立于语音加工技能的,但持此观点的也未厘清二者在阅读障碍中的相对作用,所以两种观点都有待进一步研究。后者上,研究认为造成阅读能力低下的认知过程在于正字法表征的缺陷和形音之间联系形成的障碍;在正字法透明的语言中,RAN的作用比语音加工更重要,且与反应时间之间的联系比和流畅度更密切。此外,部分关于RAN和阅读能力相互关系的纵向研究表明二者间的关系随年龄增长有更明显的趋势。最后在RAN对阅读两个成分(字词阅读和阅读理解)的贡献上尚存争议,部分认为对两个成分都有贡献,部分认为仅对单词识别有预测作用。
快速命名(RAN)阅读障碍语音加工正字法
阅读障碍(Reading Disability,简称RD)分为获得性阅读障碍障碍(Accquired Dyslexia,简称AD)和发展性阅读障碍(Developmental Dyslexia,简称DD)。前者指的是由于后天脑损伤或疾病引起的阅读困难;后者是指“某些儿童具有正常的智力水平和接受教育的机会,没有明显的神经或器质上的损伤,却在标准阅读测验上的成绩显著低于正常读者”(Habib,M 2000)[1]2373-2399。一般说的阅读障碍指的是后者,也是本文所指。Stevenson H W等(1982)[2]1164-1181对汉语、日语、英语儿童进行的研究显示,学龄阶段儿童阅读障碍的发生率为5%-10%。Lagae(2008)[3]1259-1268对北美“智力正常,接受传统的学校教育,拥有完整的听力、视力,以及足够的积极性和社交机会”的阅读障碍儿童进行研究的结果表明,学龄阶段的发生率为5%—12%。
薄弱的语音意识(Phonological Awareness,简称PA)首先被证实为发展性阅读障碍的主要原因之一,但是有些语音意识正常的儿童也具有阅读障碍。后续的研究表明,快速命名(Rapid Automatized Naming,以下简称RAN)上的缺陷或许也会导致阅读障碍。
RAN的概念于1966年被Geschwind和Fusillo首次提出(Geschwind and Fusillo 1966)[4]137-146;随后,Denckla和Rudel(1972)发展了RAN测试,指的是个体对物体、图片、颜色、字母、数字尽可能快地进行命名[5]164-176。也有其他术语,比如:快速命名(Rapid Naming)、快速系列命名(Rapid Serial Naming)、系列命名(Serial Naming)等等。目前研究人员通常采取的测试方法有:RAN(Denckla,Rudel 1974)[6]186-202、RAN-RAS(Rapid Alternate Stimulus,快速交替刺激,Wolf and Denckla 2005)[7]、CTOPP(Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing,语音加工综合测试,Wagner et al.1999))[8],这些测试根据研究视角的不同而有细微的差别。
一、强有力的预测因素
Denckla and Rudel(1972,1974,1976)[9]将RAN作为阅读能力的预测而进行的一系列研究“推进了RAN在教育范围内的研究领域”(Denckla and Cutting 1999)[10]29-42。部分研究已经证明了RAN和阅读准确性之间的重要关联(Neuhaus et al.2001)[11]490-504、RAN和阅读理解力之间的关联(Georgiou et al.2010[12]359-373;Neuhaus et al.2001[13]490-504)、RAN和阅读速度之间的关系(Wimmer 1993)[14]1-34。这些与阅读之间相关联的强有力的证据已经使得RAN被牢固确立为阅读能力强有力的预测因素(Cardoso-Martins and Pennington 2004[15]27-52;de Jong and van der Leij 1999[16]450-476;Kirby et al.2003[17]453-464;Vaessen et al.2010[18]827-842;Verhagen et al.2010[19]59-80)。
Frijters et al.(2011)[20]150-166研究称,和在典型发展的儿童身上得到的体现相比,RAN和阅读之间的关联在阅读障碍儿童身上表现得更加明显。RAN已经成为预测儿童阅读障碍的最有价值的因素之一(de Jong and van der Leij 2003[21]22-40.;Puolakanaho et al.2007[22]353-370)
Wolf和Denckla(2005)[23]曾提出,RAN的认知构成包括注意力感知觉、语义和运动加工。每一个部分对于RAN任务的完成都是至关重要的。而近期的研究的焦点则是,RAN测试中发音时间(Articulation Time)和停顿时间(Pause Time)的相对贡献也是至关重要的。Neuhaus et al.(2001a)[24]490-504将停顿时间定义为“正确的连续发音间停顿时间的总合”,而将发音时间定义为“对于RAN任务中的刺激进行反应而正确发音的时间长度的总合”。一些研究表明,停顿时间在有无阅读障碍症的儿童身上的表现有着明显的差异。Cobbold et al.等(Cobbold et al.2003[25]165-176;Clarke et al.2005[26]73-86;Georgiou et al.2006[27]199-220)的研究表明:停顿时间比发音时间对阅读能力有更好的预测作用。Neuhaus和Swank(2002)[28]158-174经过一个被试规模较大的实验之后称,在字母命名和实物命名任务中,停顿时间对阅读障碍的预测作用远重要于发音时间。当然,在一些研究结论中,也有支持发音时间的,这些冲突的观点表明,应该更加明确RAN的各个因素在阅读能力预测中所占的比重。
二、语音意识、RAN和阅读能力
语音加工(Phonological Processing)指的是个体对语言的语音信息的运用技能。研究者发现,有三种语音加工技能与阅读能力呈正相关:(1)语音意识,(2)语音记忆,(3)获取语音信息的速率。而语音意识被认为是语音加工的主要技能。语音意识(Phonological Awareness),是一种有意识检测并且操纵语音的能力(Liberman,Shankweiler 1985[29]8-17),是阅读能力正常发展的基础。语音意识也包含不同的成分,比如首尾韵的感知和发音,音节的整合、分离和添加,音素的删除、替换、位置辨别。所以,也有人将语音意识定义为“对言语中词汇的语音结构的敏感性或明确的意识”(Torgesen et al. 1994)[30]276-286。如前文所说,薄弱的语音意识(Phonological Awareness,简称PA)首先被证实为阅读障碍的主要原因之一。
有观点认为,语音意识对阅读的预测作用更突出。Wolf和Bowers(1999)[31]415-438以125名三到四年级的儿童为被试对象,分为两组,分别为患有阅读障碍症和无阅读障碍症的儿童。研究结果表明:语音意识在两组中对词汇阅读都是重要的预测因素;但是RAN只对患有阅读障碍症的儿童的阅读能力有预测作用。
另一些研究者认为,RAN任务主要评估的是对长期记忆中存储的语音信息进行提取和复原的速率,或者说是显示通达记忆中的语音信息的速度,所以应该和语音意识、语音记忆一起,被视为语音加工的一部分(Torgesen et al. 1994[32]276-286;Wagner and Torgesen 1987[33])。这一观点也受到了挑战。
Bowers和Wolf(1993)[34]69-85提出双重缺陷理论(Double Deficit Hypothesis,简称DDH),具有阅读困难的儿童必有语音缺陷(尤其是语音意识缺陷)和命名缺陷中的一种或同时具有这两种缺陷。他们认为RAN至少在一定程度上是独立于语音加工技能的。Cirino et al.(2005)[35]29-44也认为,RAN和语音意识是相对独立的。二者对阅读的影响力大小取决于阅读任务的本质。语音意识的测量对不计时的阅读能力有很好的预测,而RAN测试则对有时间限制的阅读有好的预测作用。另外,一些研究也发现,语音技能与快速命名,实则是预测阅读的不同部分。Bjarte和Furnes等人(2011)[36]85-95认为语音意识,通常是预测阅读的准确性,而快速命名,通常是关注阅读的流畅性。应该看到,持后面一种观点的对于RAN障碍与语音加工障碍在阅读障碍中的相对作用亦未厘清,所以双重障碍假设也面临着争议,而且该假设很少经过阅读年龄控制组的检验。
三、正字法、RAN和阅读能力
正字法(Orthographic)是使文字的拼读和书写合于标准的方法。Wolf(1997)[37]67-92他们认为造成阅读能力低下的认知过程在于正字法表征的缺陷和形音之间联系形成的障碍,这二者是阅读的关键。其在分析快速命名任务时特别提到了正字法的自动提取,换句话说,有快速命名缺陷的阅读障碍儿童可能没有形成一个稳定的、牢固的正字法表征,因而无法快速提取。
正字法深度(Orthographical Depth)是指词的形态结构与音位结构之间的一致程度或透明程度,亦即由形知音的程度。Forst,Katz和Bentin(1987)[38]104-114提出,各种书面语言的正字法深度可以视为一个由浅至深的连续体,每一种语言的正字法深度都可以在这个连续体中找到自己的位置。透明文字的字形单元与语音单元均一一对应,一个字形单元只代表一个语音单元,如意大利语、西班牙语。不透明文字的形音对应规则与其相反,相似的拼写表示相同的词素却表示不同的音位,词形和词音的关系较少透明,如英语、汉语。Kubozono(1996)[39]77-94的跨语言研究表明,不同人群的正字法知识对于阅读能力起着重要的作用。不同语言的研究(Brizzolara et al.2006[40]141-149;Holopainen et al.2001[41]401-413;M?Ller and Brady 2001[42]757-799;Tressoldi et al.2001[43]414-417;Wimmer 1993[44]1-34;Wimmer and Mayringer 2001[45])都认为,在正字法透明的语言中,阅读速度更快(Castles and Coltheart 2004)[46]77-111。
一个针对德语患有阅读障碍的儿童进行的研究表明:在透明正字法的语言中,个体在语音意识上的差异对阅读能力的影响是微不足道的,而在RAN方面的差异则至关重要(Wimmer 1993)[47]1-134。这一结果也得到了其他研究的证实,因此尽管如前文中所提到的,在大多数语言中,语音意识对阅读的预测作用更突出。但是因为受到正字法的影响,在拥有透明正字法的语言中,RAN还是非常重要的。Manis et al.(1999)[48]129-157强调这是正字法加工的作用,他认为RAN的核心本质是符号及其命名之间的关联是任意的。也就是说,如果阅读任务包含更多任意的形-音连接任务(阅读真词和假词),那么RAN和阅读能力之间的关系将更加显著。
Snowling and Griffiths(2003)[49]通过实验进一步发现,有阅读障碍症的儿童,尤其是英语儿童,在词长较长的真词和假词的准确发音上都有问题。而在透明语言中,有阅读障碍的儿童在准确性上问题不突出,但流畅度有所下降,相对的发音时长也是有所增加,比典型发展儿童读得慢得多。Georgiou et al.(2009)[50]508-534也认为,在透明正字法的语言中,RAN与反应时间之间的联系更密切,而不是和口语的流畅度。另外一些研究(Bowers et al.1999[51]31-53;Manis et al.1999[52]401-429.;Sunseth and Bowers 2002[53]115-128)也表明,有RAN缺陷的儿童在正字法加工中的反应表现明显弱于典型发展儿童。但是,另一些研究(Bowey and Miller 2007[54]185-199;Cunningham et al.2002[55]508-534)并不支持这个观点。因此,必须要厘清透明度不同的正字法之间的区别,以及数据类型(流畅度和反应时间)之间的差距,才能理解RAN和阅读之间的关系。
四、二者关系的纵向发展结果
RAN与阅读之间的关系是随着时间而改变的(Georgiou et al.2009)[56]508-534。Torgesen,et al.(1997)[57]161-185发现,尽管语音意识和快速命名都对阅读能力有重要的预测作用,但是在儿童阅读的早期阶段,RAN和阅读能力之间的关系并不明显。Kirby et al.(2003)[58]453-464在一个纵向研究中选取了从幼儿园到小学五年级的被试,发现RAN和阅读之间的联系有一个增长。相同的结论也被其他研究证实(Landerl and Wimmer 2008[59]150-161;Van den Bos et al.2002[60]25-49)。Bowey etal.(2005)[61]400-422认为,在阅读发展的初级阶段,字母知识和语音加工能力都对RAN和阅读之间的关系有影响,而后期阶段,主要是语音加工能力发挥作用。但同时也有研究者称,RAN对一年级和二年级的儿童的阅读有着很强的预测作用,这种联系在三年级到四年级期间逐步减弱(Georgiou et al.2008b[62]325-360;Roman et al.2009[63]96-113;Torgesen et al.1997[64]161-185)。只不过这样的例外没有经过更多实验的验证,还需要大量的实证工作(Georgiou et al.2009)[65]508-534。
五、RAN对阅读两个成分的贡献
阅读障碍者的缺陷类型牵涉到阅读的两个主要成分:字词阅读(也称解码的技能)和阅读理解(Lundberg 2002)[66]1-13。字词阅读是字形激活语音的过程,而阅读理解涉及字词识别、语音译码和理解能力,是通过语音激活和联结获取意义的过程。字词阅读、阅读理解和RAN之间的关系尚存争议。有观点认为,熟练阅读需要准确且自动提取形音,这样阅读者的注意力才能集中到意义和内容上,且字词阅读和阅读理解是分开的、序列的加工过程(Dudley and Mather 2005)[67]22-27;因此RAN对字词阅读和阅读理解都有贡献(Wolf and Bowers 1999)[68]22-27。但另一些研究认为RAN和阅读理解没有关系,它仅对单词识别有预测作用,如Meyer(1998)的研究发现RAN缺陷仅预测单词识别[69]415-438。
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