非类固醇类抗炎药致小肠损伤的药物保护
2015-03-21袁芳岑张振玉
袁芳岑 张振玉
非类固醇类抗炎药(NSAID)在临床上常用于解热、镇痛以及防治心脑血管疾病。随着NSAID在临床上应用的日趋广泛,其胃肠道不良反应日益受到重视,长期以来学者们比较关注NSAID引起的胃黏膜损害,对小肠损害关注不够。据文献报道,在长期口服NSAID的患者中,小肠黏膜受损者高达70%以上[1-2]。NSAID 相 关性小肠损 伤 的 主要临床表现包括NSAID肠病、小肠溃疡、狭窄、穿孔和隔膜样改变,其引起肠道黏膜损伤的机制尚不完全清楚,也尚无指南指出防治NSAID肠病的有效药物。本文就NASID引起小肠损伤的可能机制及其防治的研究进展作一综述。
1 有关NSAID损伤小肠黏膜机制的学说
1.1 “三级打击”学说
目前备受推崇的是“三级打击”学说:(1)NSAID作为一种脂溶性弱酸,扩散入上皮细胞转变为离子形式,造成肠上皮细胞损伤,并引起氧化磷酸化解偶联,导致线粒体损伤;(2)线粒体损伤导致ATP合成减少,细胞内能量缺失,钙离子外流,引起钙依赖酶、蛋白酶、核酸内切酶和磷脂酶激活及细胞脂质过氧化,并产生大量氧自由基,进一步损坏细胞膜的ATP泵,导致细胞间紧密连接处occl udin蛋白磷酸化,紧密连接被破坏,使得肠上皮细胞的通透性增强;ATP合成减少还改变了磷脂两性阴离子功能及脂层动力学,使其疏水性变为亲水性,破坏了肠黏膜的疏水保护屏障[3-5];(3)黏膜屏障受损使肠上皮细胞暴露于管腔内容物(如胆汁、食物,细菌及某些酶类)的机会增加,从而引起肠黏膜损伤。
1.2 环氧合酶-1和环氧合酶-2双重抑制学说
传统的NSAID同时抑制环氧合酶-1(COX-1,要素酶)和COX-2(诱导酶),因此在其发挥抗炎作用的同时,也干扰了内源性前列腺素合成,减少了肠道黏膜的血供,削弱了肠黏膜的防御机能,导致肠绒毛缩短、肠上皮细胞脱落,从而对肠黏膜造成损伤;前列腺素合成受阻后,脂氧化酶的代谢途径活跃,代谢产物白三烯生成增多,不仅促进嗜中性粒细胞黏附分子的表达,使白细胞黏附于血管内皮细胞上,同时也触发嗜中性粒细胞释放组织胺、氧自由基和蛋白酶,共同导致血管内皮细胞损伤、毛细血管阻塞、血流量下降,进一步加重了肠道黏膜损伤[3,5-6]。
1.3 细胞凋亡学说
细胞凋亡是一种由基因控制的细胞自主、有序的死亡过程,它可以有效清除突变或衰老的细胞,是维持内环境稳定的重要机制之一。根据起始刺激不同,细胞凋亡可通过数条信号转导通路发生。Bcl-2蛋白家族、线粒体、细胞色素C和天冬氨酸特异性半胱氨酸蛋白酶(caspase)是细胞内凋亡信号通路的基本组分[7]。细胞凋亡从内外多因子复杂的相互作用诱导产生凋亡信号,传递至caspase并使其活化开始,以蛋白裂解、细胞解体为结局,从而使细胞凋亡得以完成[8]。研究表明,NSAID可使黏膜结构型一氧化氮合酶(c NOS)活性下降、诱导型一氧化氮合酶(i NOS)活性升高,并与caspases活性变化及黏膜细胞凋亡有关;一氧化氮释放型NSAID(NO-NSAID)可以抑制caspase-1、3活性,抑制细胞凋亡[9]。
有研究发现,NSAID可激活肠黏膜中的i NOS,产生大量一氧化氮(NO),同时合成 O2-[10-12]。有研究发现,NO对细胞凋亡有双向调节作用,即生理条件下的低水平NO可以促进肠道腺体分泌,抑制细菌移位,而病理状态下的高水平NO可导致某些类型的细胞凋亡;其机制可能与氧自由基氧化生成剧毒的ONOO-,ONOO-又降解为OH-和NO2-,NO、O2-、ONOO-、OH-、NO2-对肠黏膜细胞直接产生细胞毒作用有关;此外,ONOO-是一种强氧化剂,具有强烈的抑制细胞线粒体氧化的作用,导致能量代谢障碍,细胞脂质过氧化损伤,最终引起肠黏膜损伤[13-16]。过量表达的NO还可诱导钙离子通道开放,使细胞外钙离子大量内流,从而触发还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(NADPH)氧化酶,产生大量氧自由基,加剧了黏膜细胞死亡[17]。
1.4 肠肝循环学说
正常状态下,小肠上皮细胞处于弱碱性环境中,NSAID可直接刺激小肠黏膜,引起细胞膜通透性增加,使肠内细菌易于侵袭;细菌侵入以及胆汁、脂肪酶/胰腺分泌物等化学刺激又可引起小肠上皮细胞的炎性反应[18]。NSAID吸收后进入肠肝循环,与胆盐竞争性结合卵磷脂,使胆盐成为游离状态,游离的胆盐对肠黏膜细胞具有直接的细胞毒作用,使肠道黏膜受损。胆汁与NSAID结合的复合物对小肠黏膜的损伤作用大于单一的NSAID,同时肠肝循环延长了NSAID与小肠壁的接触时间,加重了小肠损伤[18-19]。
2 防治NSAID肠病的药物及措施
目前用于防治NSAID相关性胃黏膜损伤的药物有许多种,但对NSAID所致小肠黏膜损伤至今仍缺乏有效防治措施。防治NSAID所致小肠黏膜损伤的药物包括黏膜保护剂、抑酸药物、抗菌药物、益生菌制剂、生物制剂,还有食物等其他防治措施。
2.1 黏膜保护剂
早在1989年Bjar nason等[20]就发现,米索前列醇能够减少吲哚美辛引起的小肠病变的概率和严重程度。Mohajer等[21]认为,其保护机制包括促进小肠分泌、增强黏膜保护、增强上皮及内皮细胞屏障功能及促进肠动力等。Diao等[22]测定了大鼠肠黏膜的通透性,发现瑞巴派特通过线粒体降低双氯芬酸肠损伤的黏膜通透性,从而保护了小肠黏膜。Satoh等[23]的 Wistar大鼠实验发现,黏膜保护药(米索前列醇、瑞巴派特、伊索拉定)通过抑制黏液减少起到对NSAID损伤肠黏膜的保护作用。Shibamori等[24]则认为,瑞巴派特调整了肠道菌群,同时抑制了COX-2和肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α),从而对小肠损伤起到保护作用。
2.2 抑酸药物
Wallace等[25]认为质子泵抑制剂(PPI)能够通过抑制菌群移位来防止NSAID所致小肠损伤。Umegaki等[26]观察口服2周双氯芬酸的志愿者分别用替普瑞酮和法莫替丁干预后的效果,结果发现与法莫替丁相比,替普瑞酮显著抑制了小肠病变的发展,而上消化道的这种差异不明显。Kuramoto等[27]研究发现,伊索拉定能够抑制NSAID肠病。Satoh等[28]的一系列临床试验显示,兰索拉唑有保护NSAID小肠损伤的作用,而雷贝拉唑、奥美拉唑及H2受体拮抗剂(H2-RA)反而会加重NSAID所致小肠损伤。
2.3 抗菌药物和益生菌制剂
Packey等[29]认为盐酸阿霉素改变了空肠和远端回肠的对比微生物反应,因此对NASID肠病有抑制作用;Saitta等[30]研究发现,细菌β-葡萄糖醛酸酶可以保护吲哚美辛、酮洛芬、双氯芬酸引起的小鼠肠黏膜损伤。Leite等[31]早在2001年就发现甲硝唑可以保护NSAID肠损伤,其机制可能与线粒体氧化磷酸化解偶联有关。Watanabe等[32]的大鼠实验发现,干酪乳杆菌对吲哚美辛引起的肠损伤有预防作用,认为是通过左旋乳酸抑制了脂多糖/Toll样受体4(LPS/TLR4)信号通路而发挥作用的。Montalto等[33]进行了一项随机双盲试验,给予20名志愿者服用21 d益生菌合剂(VSL#3)或安慰剂,从第16天开始给予志愿者口服吲哚美辛(50 mg/d),并从第15天开始测定粪钙卫蛋白(肠道炎性反应标志物),结果显示预先服用VSL#3可以抑制粪钙卫蛋白表达升高,减轻肠道炎性反应,保护肠道黏膜。
2.4 生物制剂
Mencarelli等[34]研究发现,抗人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)蛋白酶抑制剂与NSAID作用可降低NSAID肠病的发生率。Theiss等[35]研究发现,抗增殖蛋白(PHB)能够对抗肠黏膜的氧化应激反应,从而对NSAID小肠病变起到保护作用。Reuter等[36]研究发现,磷酸二酯酶抑制剂可能能够预防NSAID肠病,其机制应与抑制TNF-α合成相关。多巴胺D2受体(D2 R)拮抗剂吗叮啉是被熟知的胃肠促动力药,Kawahara等[37]研究发现,吗叮啉通过激活α7乙酰胆碱受体,能够对NSAID小肠溃疡起到保护作用。Cipriani等[38]研究发现,G蛋白偶联胆汁酸受体1(GPBAR1)对维持胃肠黏膜的完整性起着重要的作用,缺乏这种受体的小鼠肠黏膜对甲氧萘丙酸(消痛灵)更敏感,更容易受到损伤,而GPBAR1激动剂对阿司匹林和NSAID引起的胃肠黏膜损伤起到保护作用,其机制可能为COX非依赖性。Halista等[39]研究证实,熊去氧胆酸确实能抵御NSAID引起的肠黏膜损害。Inoue等[40]研究发现,二肽基肽酶-Ⅳ(DPP-Ⅳ)能够预防大鼠在吲哚美辛灌胃后发生NASID肠损伤,并对溃疡恢复有促进作用。
2.5 食物
近年来萝卜硫素被证实通过激活nrf2-keap1途径依赖的抗氧化系统以及抑制厌氧菌侵袭肠黏膜来防止 NSAID 小肠损伤[41-42]。Satoh等[43]比较了喂食普通饲料和含可溶性纤维素食物的猫的小肠黏液素改变,发现可溶性纤维素可能通过改善黏液素屏障来预防 NSAID肠损伤。Carrasco-Pozo等[44]的大鼠实验发现,苹果皮多酚也有预防NSAID肠损伤的作用。Amagase等[45]研究认为,谷氨酸盐可减少大鼠NSAID肠损伤的发生率。
2.6 其他
Sivalingam等[46]认为锌可以有效保护吲哚美辛引起的小肠损伤,其机制可能与金属硫蛋白诱发有关。热休克蛋白(HSP)近年来被证实在细胞生长调控和凋亡中发挥了重要的作用。Tamaki等[47]的实验发现,经中药六君子汤(TJ-43)预处理过的IEC-6细胞HSP60蛋白表达升高,细胞坏死和凋亡率明显下降。Yoriki等[48]先用吲哚美辛制备NSAID肠病模型小鼠,实验组用氯化血红素预处理,结果发现实验组小鼠血红素氧化酶-1(HO-1)被激活,溃疡病变的严重程度及数量、髓过氧化物酶活性、炎性细胞因子及趋化因子的mRNA表达均下降,若加用HO-1特异性抑制剂锌原卟啉(Zn PP)则其保护作用将失效。Mei等[49]研究发现,与对照组相比,双氯芬酸诱导的小肠损伤大鼠的肠黏膜通透性增加,溃疡数目更多,病变程度更严重,病理评分更高,丙二醛(MDA)、髓过氧化物酶(MPO)活性也更高;经褪黑素处理的大鼠的上述指标均好于双氯芬酸组,在透射电镜下可见其小肠绒毛形态和细胞间隙与对照组相似,ATP酶及琥珀酸脱氢酶(SDH)的活性也明显恢复了。Chao等[50]研究发现,用云母预处理后,双氯芬酸诱导的NSAID肠病大鼠的小肠黏膜损伤明显减轻,其机制可能与增强黏膜屏障功能、增加表皮生长因子(EGF)表达相关。
3 总结
目前研究报道的治疗药物种类繁多,但大多为动物实验,存在一定局限性,是否适用于人体亟需进一步证实,其有效性及安全性也有待多中心临床试验数据证实。日本的一项多中心随机双盲对照临床试验证实,瑞巴派特对小剂量阿司匹林/NSAID引起的小肠病变有治疗作用[51],这无疑是广大NSAID肠病患者的福音,但NSAID致小肠黏膜损伤的机制及瑞巴派特保护NSAID肠病的机制尚未明确,有待进一步研究。
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