儿童激素耐药肾病综合征相关致病基因及其临床检测策略
2013-11-22李国民
李国民 沈 茜 徐 虹 安 宇
肾病综合征(NS)是因肾小球滤过屏障受损而引起的一组临床综合征。肾小球滤过屏障由内皮细胞、基底膜和足细胞构成。多项研究表明,足细胞在肾小球滤过屏障中起关键作用,特别是足细胞相邻足突构成的裂隙膜(slit diaphragm,SD)[1~4]。依据对激素治疗的反应可将 NS 分为激素敏感型(SSNS)和激素耐药型 (SRNS)[5]。10%~20%的NS患儿为SRNS,超过半数的SRNS患儿在10年内会进展为终末期肾病(ESRD)[5~7]。在 NS患者中,有一类是由足细胞和基底膜相关分子基因突变所引起,该类NS又称为遗传性NS[8,9]。遗传性NS患者不仅表现对激素耐药,对其他免疫抑制剂几乎均耐药,属于SRNS范畴,治疗的主要方向是减轻蛋白尿和保护肾功能,延缓疾病进展;这类SRNS患者易快速进展为ESRD,而进展为ESRD后的最佳治疗选择为肾移植,因为遗传性NS患者肾移植后复发率很低[10~13]。目前临床观点认为,在SRNS患者选择免疫抑制剂治疗和终末期肾移植之前应将遗传性NS患者筛选出来,其目的是为SRNS患者提供个体化治疗,避免盲目治疗[14~17]。本文就SRNS相关致病基因、主要基因突变流行率,及临床基因分析对象、方法和意义进行综述。
1 SRNS的定义和分类
儿童SRNS诊断标准:泼尼松1.5~2.0 mg·kg-1·d-1(最大不超过60 mg)治疗4~8周,或相应剂量的其他类型的肾上腺皮质激素治疗4~8周,尿蛋白不能转阴[18,19]。依据SRNS患者是否伴有肾外症状,可将 SRNS分为非综合征型(单发型)SRNS 和综合征型 SRNS[8,14]。非综合征型SRNS只有NS表现,不伴有其他系统症状,综合征型SRNS不仅有NS的表现,还有先天性或遗传性疾病引起的肾外症状;依据发病年龄又可以将SRNS分为先天性(0~3个月)、婴儿型(~12个月)、儿童早发型(~5岁)、儿童迟发型(~13岁)、青少年型(~18岁)和成人型(>18 岁)[8,14];依据患者间是否具有血缘关系,SRNS 可分为家族性和散发性。
表1 非综合征型SRNS及其致病基因
2 SRNS的相关致病基因
SRNS患者发病早,有肾病水平蛋白尿家族史,快速进展为 E SRD 提 示由遗传因素引起[14,15,20]。1998 年,发现了NPHS1,其编码nephrin是足细胞SD结构构成和信号传导分子,是维持肾小球滤过屏障完整性的关键分子之一,也是芬兰型先天性NS主要致病基因[21]。NPHS1的发现开创了NS致病基因和分子研究时代。
2.1 非综合征型(单发型)SRNS致病基因 目前有12种基因突变可分别引发非综合征型SRNS(表1),其临床主要病理类型为局灶节段肾小球硬化(FSGS)、弥漫系膜硬化(DMS)和膜增生性肾小球肾炎(MPGN)。这些基因产物均在肾小球足细胞中表达,有的分子直接、间 接 参 与 SD(NPHS1、NPHS2、CD2AP)和肌动蛋白细胞骨架(ACTN4、INF2)的构成,有的参与细胞代谢和信号转导(PTPRO、 PLCE1、 APLO1、MYO1E、DGKN 和 ARHGDIA)[20~32]。 N PHS1、 N PHS2、PTPRO、PLCE1、CD2AP、APLO1、MYO1E、DGKN 和 A RHGDIA引起的SRNS表现为常染色体隐性遗传(AR),在儿童时期发病(APLO1除外,其突变主要在成年期发病);而ACTN4、TRPC6和INF2引起的SRNS表现为常染色体显性遗传(AD),多数患者在青少年或成年期发病[12,14,34]。APLO1与成人ESRD、FSGS和非糖尿病肾病发病有关,这些疾病主要发生在非裔美国人群中,未见其在其他人群中发生,表明APLO1所致疾病与种族有关联[29,35,36]。这些基因突变类型有错义、无义突变、插入、缺失和剪切突变等,其中错义突变是主要突变类型,可以累及基因所有编码区,故无热点突变[14,15,37]。
2.2 综合征型SRNS致病基因综合征型SRNS患者肾外症状明显,经常因肾外症状就诊,后发现肾脏表现。引起综合征型SRNS的基因见表2,这些基因不仅仅在足细胞中表达,而且在其他组织和细胞也有表达。其中WT1和LMX1B编码的蛋白属于转录因子,LAMB2和ITGB4编码的蛋白属于肾小球基底膜构成分子,SCARB2编码的蛋白属于溶 酶 体 蛋 白 ,COQ2、PDSS2、COQ6和MTTL1编码的蛋白属于线粒体蛋白,SMARCAL1编码的蛋白属于DNA核小体重组调节因 子[37~52]。WT1、LAMB2 和MYH 9突变可仅有SRNS表现(非综合征型),也可引起相应的综合征同时伴发SRNS(综合征型)[40,54,55]。WT1、MYH9、ITGB4、ZMPSTE24 和 LMNA突变可以引发多个临床综合征,并不是都伴有SRNS,仅部分伴有SRNS(表2)。如WT1突变可以引起中疾病,Denys-Drash综合征和Frasier综合征可伴有NS表现,而体细胞间皮瘤和Wilms肿瘤1型无NS表现。此外,WT1突变也可仅有NS表现,所以有时 WT1可用 NPHS4作为基因代码[54,56,57]。Galloway-Mowat综合征于1968首次描述,临床表现为早期发病的NS(病理DMS)、小头畸形和裂孔疝,为AR,至今尚未发现其致病基因[58]。
3 SRNS相关致病基因的突变频率
澳大利亚的研究发现,SRNS是儿童继先天性肾脏泌尿道畸形(CAKUT)之后第二常见的遗传性肾脏疾病[59]。在综合征型SRNS致病基因中,WT1是所致疾病相对常见的基因,其他基因所致疾病比较罕见[38]。在非综合征型SRNS致病基因中,PTPRO所致疾病不太常见,可能与相关研究不够有关[15]。国外研究显示,相对常见的SRNS相关致病基因在不同人群的流行率是不同的(表3)[9,12,14,60~68]。国 内 对 SRNS 致 病 基 因 研 究 比 较 少,NPSH2在散发性SRNS患儿中的突变率为4%~5%[69],WT1在3岁之前散发性SRNS患儿中的突变率为16%~17%,3岁之后未见报道[70]。NPHS1在散发性SRNS患儿中的突变率为4.5%[71]。世界各地研究发现,某一基因的突变率并不一致,可能是种族的影响。总体特征是,年龄越小发病的 SRNS,基因所致可能性越大[15,72~74]。
表310个相对常见SRNS基因的突变率(%)
4 SRNS相关致病基因分析对象和策略
4.1 分析对象 从SRNS相关致病基因在不同人群中流行特点来分析,儿童是基因分析的主要对象,无论是散发性还是家族性 S RNS 均应该进行相关基因分析[14,15,60]。NPHS2、ACTN4、TRPC6和INF2在家族性SRNS成人病例中有一定的突变率,但在散发性SRNS成人中罕见,因此家族性AR的 SRNS患者可行 NPSH2分析,AD患者可行ACTN4、TRPC6和INF2分析,散发性SRNS成人病例可不行基因分析[9,16,34]。
4.2 分析方法 目前,SRNS相关致病基因分析方法主要是用Sanger法对外显子及附近区域直接测序,并已经从实验室走向临床[14,15,60]。这种方法的优点是准确性高、重复性强,缺点是需要消耗大量的财力和时间,这也限制了SRNS相关致病基因分析在临床推广。对于有热点突变的基因,基于SnapShot等技术的热点突变分析是目前临床经济、有效和快速的基因分析方法。随着科技的发展,高通量测序仪已在生物科学领域应用。基于芯片技术的多基因外显子捕获和高通量测序将是未来SRNS相关致病基因全面分析的方向[75]。
4.3 分析策略 涉及SRNS发病基因达到数十个,临床对所有SRNS致病基因进行分析无疑是很昂贵和耗时、也不切实际。临床理想的SRNS致病基因分析策略是根据表型与基因型的对应关系,有针对性的进行某些基因分析,但SRNS患儿表型与基因型具有异质性,非对应关系,这就给临床SRNS患者基因分析带来困难。对于综合征型SRNS患儿,致病基因分析的策略是根据肾外表现来推断可能的致病基因,然后对该基因进行直接测序(图1)[9,11,20,42,46,60,76]。而对于非综合征 S RNS 患儿,目前临床策略是对非综合征SRNS患儿先行肾活检,依据病理表型来推断可能的致病基因,然后进行候选致病基因直接测序(图 2 )[8,15,16,60,77],这样可尽可能缩小检测基因范围。但近年来有学者认为,SRNS患儿致病基因分析应该先于肾活检,其理由为肾活检具有创伤性,肾脏病理类型与致病基因并没有直接的关系。尽管多数SRNS患儿主要肾脏病理为FSGS和DMS。但研究发现,遗传性SRNS患儿的早期肾脏病理改变可为轻微病变(MCD)或系膜增殖性肾小球肾炎(MsPGN),晚期可以表现为FSGS或DMS,并无特征性改变[14,15]。由于1岁以内儿童 N S主要由 N PHS1、NPHS2 和WT1等基因突变引起,特别是先天性肾病综合征(CNS)[74,78]。因此,对 C NS 和婴儿型 N S 患儿应常规行NPHS1、NPHS2和 WT1等基因分析,更应该先于肾活检[8,15,60,78]。合理的儿童 S RNS 相关致病基因临床分析策略应该是根据特定SRNS儿童人群(遗传背景相似)的突变图谱来选择致病基因分析。这就需要通过对特定SRNS儿童人群进行致病基因研究,建立该人群SRNS致病基因突变图谱。成人主要依据是家族性或散发性来决定基因分析策略,如是家族性,遗传方式为 A D,可考虑行 A CTN4、TRPC6和INF2分析;遗传方式为AR,可行NPHS2分析。如果是散发性,可以不用进行基因分析,或行 N PHS2 Q229R位点分析,如果存在NPHS2 Q229R,可考虑进行全NPHS2 基因分析[12,14,16,79]。
图1 综合征型SRNS基因检测流程图
图2 非综合征型SRNS基因检测流程图
5 SRNS相关致病基因临床分析的意义
SRNS 发病机制和治疗一直困扰着儿科临床医生或肾脏病工作者。SRNS致病基因不仅能明确患者的病因和发病机制,而且可以指导治疗。指导治疗体现在不必要使用糖皮质激素和免疫抑制剂,进入ESRD的SRNS患者优先考虑肾移植治疗[15,80,81]。SRNS致病基因分析是临床提供遗传咨询的依据,这种遗传咨询不仅可以提供给患者的父母,同时也可提供给患者本人[8,77]。如父母是NPHS1突变的携带者,其子女发生CNS的概率为25%,母亲在妊娠20周后应该检测α甲胎蛋白(AFP),AFP显著增高提示CNS可能性极大,必要时可行产前诊断;又如 W T1突变的患者,理论上有发生Wilm's肿瘤和肾胚胎瘤的可能,应该定期随访肾脏超声[11,37,77]。
总之,SRNS致病基因多种,SRNS患者的表型和基因型复杂。临床工作者应该首先在不同遗传背景人群构建SRNS基因突变图谱,根据图谱再构建基因分析的方案,然后依据方案选择经济、快速和准确的方法来分析SRNS致病基因。虽然基于芯片技术的多基因外显子捕获和高通量测序将是未来SRNS相关致病基因全面分析的方向,这些技术已经不是问题,但是庞大的测序数据分析将成为这项技术开展的新问题。集数学、生物学和计算机学为一体的生物信息学发展会帮助解决这些新问题。
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