Toward a Philosophy of Dance

[USA] Curtis L. Carter

【Abstract】 As a performing art, dance requires the close cooperation of dancers and choreographers in the performance process. Based on dance practice, expanding various concepts and topics of dance understanding is the practical premise of proposing dance philosophy. The aims of a philosophy of dance include developing concepts and theories that position dance in relation to philosophical theories and in relation to other forms of cultural knowledge. Western Philosophers as early as Plato and Aristotle have thought it within their purview to philosophize about the arts in general and about dance in particular. I shall assume that our contemporary philosophical understanding of dance benefits in some considerable degree from this tradition. Who are recent philosophers and theorists who have most influenced my thinking on questions relating to the philosophy of dance? Among these would be Suzanne Langer, Rudolf Arnheim, and Nelson Goodman. One aim of future philosophy of dance is to develop concepts and theories that seek to explain to the art of dancing, and to reflect critically on the concepts and theories on dance previously advanced by philosophers and other thinkers. A second question concerns methodology for the philosophy of dance. To reflect critically on the concepts and theories previously generated by philosophers and other thinkers and questions relating to their applications to current understanding of dance remains a source of insights useful to projecting the future of the philosophy of dance.

【Keywords】 Philosophy of Dance, Plato, Aristotle, Suzanne Langer, Rudolf Arnheim, Nelson Goodman,

I. Beginnings

My interest in dance began with exploring dance as a form of personal expression that has carried through generations of family practice. Appreciating dance as a form of art came through interest and appreciation of dance performances first in the form of classical ballet, then experimental modern and contemporary dance. A chance meeting with Selma Jeanne Cohen at a meeting of the American Society for Aesthetics in 1970 brought me the opportunity to participate in a workshop on dance criticism organized by Ms. Cohen and also staffed with Deborah Jowitt and Marcia Siegel at the Connecticut College summer dance festival. A summer of opportunities encountered at the Connecticut College festival and elsewhere to observe first hand the performances of both ballet (New York City Ballet) and a range of modern and contemporary dancers including Anna Halprin, Luas Hoving, Pina Bausch, Rudy Perez,, Meredith Monk, among others, brought me in closer touch with dance as a form of art. Writing exercises under the tutelage of dance historian Selma Jeanne Cohen, dance critics Deborah Jowett, Marcia Siegel and others provided opportunities to put visual or bodily experiences of dance into concepts and written expressions then aimed at writing dance criticism. The dance photographs of Barbara Morgan of Martha Graham, Merce Cunningham and others of the leading modern dancers led me to more closely reflect on the possibilities for a philosophy of dance.

When invited by a dance company to tour with them on a two-week run to speak about the relation of dance to the humanities, I was challenged to think about how one might approach a philosophy of dance and communicate this understanding to an audience interested in dance. During this two-week period, I rehearsed and appeared in company performances discussing dance from the perspective of philosophy while surrounded on stage by the moving dancers.①“The Contemporary Choreographer：Response in the Arts to Aesthetic and Moral Values in Modern Society，” Symposia and Performance，Four Cities，Sponsor，National Endowment for the Humanities，1980. The Des Moines Ballet with guest artists，Ann Marie De Angelo （Joffrey Ballet）and John Meehan （American Ballet Theatre）.

Toward the end of the two-week run, two of the dancers, Anne Marie De Angelo of the Joffrey Ballet and John Meehan, of American Ballet Theater, approached me about working with them to write a philosophy of dance. The result was a series of meetings over a year with intense discussions on what might constitute a philosophy of dance that would be centered on the dancers’ understanding of the art form. A series of discussions over the following year produced notes and tapes aiming at generating a philosophy of dance. The project never got to the actual creation of a philosophy of dance, though it did ground me in ways of thinking about dance that no doubt helped to anchor my own efforts in subsequent writings and lectures on the subject of dance aesthetics.

The dancers (De Angelo and Meehan) in our discussions aiming toward a philosophy of dance were clear about their understanding of dance from the performers’ perspective, but their understanding of dance as performers, without additional conceptual skills necessary to practicing philosophy did not necessarily transfer into a philosophy of dance. Missing was experience in the practice of using language to create a philosophy of dance, a facility that requires its own conceptual skills, training and practice with developing concepts and analyzing reasoning related to the experiences of dance.

Perhaps one reason for the truncation of this attempt at creating a philosophy of dance apart from scheduling logistics was the realization that the practices of creating choreography and performing dances as works of art are different processes from that of creating a philosophy of dance. With respect to dance as a performing art, a dancer’s understanding of dance is based on a performance practice with choreographic rules or conventions and bodily skills and training necessary to carry out the demands of the practice. The choreographer provides the conceptual model or score that shapes the structure of a particular dance work and instructs the dancers in its implementation. The dancers bring a seasoned bodily practice based on training and talent to realizing dance in their performances. A philosopher brings to dance talent and skills in developing concepts and arguments that relate to the understanding of various aspects of dance.

The aims of a philosophy of dance include developing concepts and theories that position dance in relation to philosophical theories and in relation to other forms of cultural knowledge. Among the tasks of a philosophy of dance is to create conceptual frames that differentiate dance from other forms of human movement, and from other forms of the arts by delineating the particular features of dance as a form of art.

My own entry into the philosophy of dance thus began with viewing a broad range of dance performances, influenced by curiosity as to how one might transfer experiences of dancing and observing dance into words and concepts. This curiosity first led to writing dance criticism and literally observing and writing about dance on every occasion available, which often included conversations with dance performers and choreographers. First-hand viewing of dance performances and writing about these inform the philosopher’s task with related experience, contributing to a deeper understanding of dance as a performing art.

Then came a period of reflection and integrating experiences of writing criticism with my training in philosophical aesthetics or philosophy of art in mind. In short, my engagement with the philosophy of dance emerged out of my personal interest in dance and its place in the arts. This personal interest buoyed by engaging discussions with performers, writing dance criticism, and delving into dance history, especially as advanced by dance historian Selma Jeanne Cohen, led me to a philosophy of dance focused mainly on the aesthetics of dance. Both dance criticism and dance history provided important information that serve as a background for the philosophy of dance.

The opportunity to work with the editors and authors whose works comprised the six volume production of the International Encyclopedia of Dance, published by Oxford University Press in 1998, led to further deepening my appreciation and understanding of dance and the need for a philosophy of dance. This experience provided opportunities to further deepen my knowledge and understanding of the possibilities for a philosophy of dance.①For additional information on the history of dance aesthetics see CARTER C L. Western Dance Aesthetics［M］//ALDRICH E. The International Encyclopedia of Dance：Vol. 1. New York：Oxford University Press，1998：19—26.Especially important from this experience was the realization that the philosophy of dance as an academic enterprise might embrace the values of multiple cultures. Hence it is necessary for the philosophy of dance to choose an area of focus. In my case, the decision has been to focus mainly on dance practices as they arise in Western theatre dance. This does not mean necessarily that insights into and theories pertaining to western theatre dance are not applicable to dance as it is practiced in other cultures. Only when considering the philosophy of dance, it is wise to remain flexible and aware that the practices in different cultures may require more than a single set of philosophical exercises and varying concepts.②See，for example，Dance［M］// GUO S X，SHENG X Q. A History of Chinese Culture. Kaifeng：Henan University Press，1993：457.

II. Philosophical Understandings of Dance

Western Philosophers as early as Plato and Aristotle have thought it within their purview to philosophize about the arts in general and about dance in particular. I shall assume that our contemporary philosophical understanding of dance benefits in some considerable degree from this tradition. In his essays inThe Republicand TheLaws, Plato distinguishes between the roles of dance in reference to a theory of the arts as imitation and dance as a form of education of citizens. Plato’s interest in the art of dance assumes a more practical form as he considers dance from the perspective of its role in developing a morally responsive community. Initially in his Republic, Plato offers dance as a form of representational art. For Plato artful dance also serves the community when its images result in virtuous living. Aristotle refers briefly to dance in thePoeticsChapter 1 where he notes that the end of all mimetic arts, including dancing, is imitation of human characters, actions, and experiences. In this reference, and a subsequent discussion of dance in Book 8 of thePoliticswhere dance is discussed under the termmousike, Aristotle contends that enjoying and viewing imitative actions in an artistic performance serve the ends of developing intellectual culture and ultimately of moral character.③PLATO. The Republic：The Laws. Books 2 and 8［M］//The Collected Dialogues of Plato. Edited by Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns. Princeton：Princeton University Press，1961；ARISTOTLE. The Poetics：Book 1 and 8［M］//The Basic Works of Aristotle. Edited by Ricard P McKeon. New York：Random House，1941.

Not all philosophers have deemed dance worthy of attention. Hegel, for example, does not include dance in his discussion alongside the fine arts of poetry, drama, music, painting, sculpture, and architecture. The reasons for Hegel’s omission of dance from his system of the fine arts are open to speculation. Perhaps it is because of the prominence of the physical body in dance. Given that Hegel accords the human body worthy of respect as nature’s most perfect form as represented in classical art, it seems unlikely that dance’s reliance on the body would provide a reason for its exclusion from his system for the arts. Rather, one suspects that he regards the state of dance during his time in the mid-nineteenth century as being less worthy of serious philosophical attention than these other arts.

For the most part, questions giving rise to reflections on the nature of dance parallel those resulting in philosophical discussions of the related arts such as music, poetry, painting and sculpture. For example, how do aesthetic theories representation, expression, formalism designed to frame our considerations of aesthetic aspects of the arts contribute to our understanding of dance? Yet the particular role of the body in dance sets it apart from the other fine arts.

Who are recent philosophers and theorists who have most influenced my thinking on questions relating to the philosophy of dance? Among these would be Suzanne Langer, Rudolf Arnheim, and Nelson Goodman. As Suzannne Langer takes up the question of a philosopher’s approach to dance, she emphasizes that a philosophical question about dance is always a demand for meaning as opposed to mere questions of factual description. A philosopher’s concern is the significance of the dance in itself and in relation to other important activities. The answers to such questions, says Langer, are established by thoughtful reflection. Philosophical reflection is first of all an analytical examination of the concepts we use to discuss a given topic. It includes for Langer clarification of the meanings of such terms as art, expression, and dance. Analysis may show that our concepts are unclear, or that our fuzzy concepts are contradictory or senseless. In such cases, analysis is insufficient and must be augmented with logical construction. Logical construction, according to Langer, is a creative aspect of philosophy wherein a philosopher establishes the fundamental concepts necessary to discuss his subject and sets forth their meanings.①LANGER S K. The Dynamic Image：Some Philosophical Reflections on Dance［M］// Problems of Art . New York：Scribner’s & Sons，1957：76—78.

Langer’s principal contribution to philosophy of dance is her attempt to clarify the nature of a dance. The dance, she argues, springs from the physical actions that the dancers perform, but it is not these physical actions that comprise the dance. The dance is a set of virtual forces that are created for, and exist only for, our perception. The dance is “real” in the sense that a rainbow is real, but it is not real in the same sense that a physical thing is real, that is in the sense of having ordinary properties of a physical thing. The dance, as Langer views it, is rather an apparition of the active powers of perception, a dynamic image whose purpose is to present the nature and patterns of sensitive emotional life. The feelings presented in a dance image are, similarly, imagined feelings expressed symbolically through the dance, rather than the “real” feelings of the artist.②LANGER S K.What is Dance？ ［M］//Feeling and Form. New York：Scribner’s & Sons，1953：108.

Langer’s theory of dance has attracted widespread interest among dancers, in part because it has been one of the few theories readily accessible to them. Her theory has been criticized by philosophers, justifiably it seems, for suggesting that a dance can consist wholly in an apparition or perceptual image.8Her theory reduces the physical forms made by the human body to mere means for producing the perceptual image, and leaves ambiguous the ontological state of the dance. Her virtual. entities are ambiguous with respect to the nature of the precise mental states that constitute the dances, for instance, whether they are merely visual sensory patterns or ideas, and with respect. whether they are in some sense objective, that is the same for similar viewers, or are individual relative to each particular viewer.

Arnheim, though mainly appreciated for his work in the psychology of art, also deserves a place in the ranks of contributors to the philosophy of dance. Arnheim begins his essay, “Concerning the Dance”, noting that in dance, “The artist, his tool, and his work are fused into one physical thing—the human body…. The dancer does not act upon the world, he behaves in it. And his behavior has meaning only when performed for others”.③ARNHEIM R. Dance［M］// Salamagundi，No. 33，34. Spring，Summer 1976：89—92；ARNHEIM R. Art and Visual Perception：A Psychology of the Creative Eye. Berkeley：University of California Press，1974：403—409.When dance functions as art, the challenge to the dancer is to transform dance movements into visual language involving the entire body and a particular choreographic aim. This includes bodily-kinesthetic sensations which are transmitted through the dancer’s movements to the spectator. The aspect of dance that appeared to interest Arnheim most was its expressionist aspects. In this respect he brings to bear on dance an understanding of Gestalt expressionist theory.

In his essay, “The Melody of Motion,” with reference to the dance theorist Rudolf Laban, Arnheim draws attention to dance and “the natural physiology of the human body” and the importance of the coordination of mind and body that are essential to dance. Here, Arnheim explores two elements of dance movement, practical efficiency and artistic expression, both of which he views as being essential to performing dance.①ARNHEIM R. The Melody of Motion［M］//To the Rescue of Art. Berkeley and Los Angeles，CA：University of California Press，1992： 127—131.What then distinguishes the dance from everyday movement? One key element is the abstractness of the dancer’s body of pure expressive movements when devoid of spoken text and theatrical story. Expressive movements informed by the kinesthetic energies of the body combine with the abstract features of the body including its shapes and movement possibilities to satisfy the conceptual plans of a choreographic model. Or as philosopher Paul Valérey explains it, a philosopher offers a more abstract discussion of dance as a form of poetic action, opposing it to ordinary, useful actions.

Nelson Goodman’s interest in dance is articulated in two different formats. In his influential bookLanguages of Art,Goodman locates dance as one of the forms of language-like artistic symbols. He analyzes the various forms of art according to their particular symbolic features. His aim, by approaching the various arts in accord with differences in their symbolic characteristics (representation, exemplification, and expression) was to establish a basis for their respective cognitive roles with the aim of greater perceptive and cognitive discrimination. Goodman’s approach to dance as a form of symbolism is illustrated in the following comments:

Some elements of the dance are primarily denotative, Versions of the descriptive gestures of daily life (e.g., bowings, beckoning) or of ritual. (e.g., signs of benediction, Hindu hand posture). But other movements, especially in the modern dance, primarily exemplify rather than denote. What they exemplify, however, are not standard or familiar activities, but rather rhythms and dynamic shapes. The exemplified patterns and properties may reorganize experience, relating actions not usually associated or distinguishing others not usually differentiated, thus enriching allusion or sharpening discrimination.②GOODMAN N. Languages of Art［M］.Indianapolis：Bobbs Merrill，1968：64.

These remarks from his book,Languages of Art, indicate the overall approach to dance as a form of symbolism.

Hence, dance works and their performances, alongside architecture, paintings, music, and the other arts, shape human experiences much like linguistic and scientific symbols. For example, elements of dance may denote descriptive gestures of everyday life. Alternatively, especially in modern dance, dance may exemplify abstract rhythms and dynamic shapes.③GOODMAN N. Languages of Art［M］.Indianapolis：Bobbs Merrill，1968：64，91，211—218.The essence of Goodman’s approach to a philosophy of dance is found in these words: “I am not attempting to instruct choreographers or performers or dance critics, but to provide a framework for a philosophical account of what they do, and relate that to what goes on in the other arts, in the sciences, and in all our activities of making and remaking our worlds”.④GOODMAN N. “The Role of Notations” and “What is Dance ？ ” in What is Dance ？ ［M］// Readings in Theory and Criticism. eds. Roger Copeland and Marshall Cohen，Oxford：Oxford University Press，1983：64—65.

Goodman shares with Arnheim the view that the arts including dance are appropriate means for thinking, augmenting and supplementing words. Arnheim states this point explicitly in his bookVisual Thinking:“Purely verbal thinking is the prototype of thoughtless thinking, the automatic recourse to corrections retrieved from storage. What makes language so valuable for thinking, is then cannot be thinking in words. It must be the help that words lend to thinking while it operates in a more appropriate medium, such as visual imagery.”①ARNHEIM R. Words in Their Place［M］// Visual Thinking. Berkeley：University of California Press，1969：Chapter 13.Goodman devotes an entire work,Languages of Art,to developing the case for the arts including dance as different symbol systems available for executing human symbolic processes in thinking.

It is noteworthy that both Arnheim and Goodman’s interests in dance went beyond their contributions to the philosophy of dance. Arnheim’s contribution to art education theory and practice is a noteworthy extension of his theoretical writings on the philosophy of dance and related arts. Goodman’s interest in the philosophy of dance carried over to its application to dance related projects. He served as founder and director of the art education program Project Zero at Harvard an interdisciplinary program of the philosophy of aesthetic education. As Director of the Dance Center at Harvard, he oversaw and contributed to the summer dance program.

Goodman ventured on occasion into the arena of performance. In 1981, he illustrated the application of his theory to his own multi-media dance work, “Hockey Seen: A Nightmare in Three Periods and Sudden Death”. The dance, he says, represents or denotes incidents common to a hockey game, and is also denoted by the predicate hockey representation. The work also exemplifies certain movements and patterns of movement, derived from the actions of hockey and the vocabulary of dance. It expresses various aspects of competition, frustration, and struggle in a metaphorical rather than a literal. sense. In these respects “Hockey Seen” illustrates the three main forms of symbolism (representation, exemplification, and expression) which Goodman relates to the arts.

“Hockey Seen” is noteworthy as an example of collaboration between a philosopher and those responsible for creating and producing a work of dance. Composer John Adams, provided the music, choreographer Martha Grey and her dancers supplied the choreography and performances, visual artist Katherine Sturgis provided the set design, and media artist Gerd Stern contributed visual effects to the performance. Hence, apart from his important contributions to the philosophy of dance, Goodman shows the possibilities for relating philosophical interests to creating and performance of dance.②The papers with correspondence and other details of the collaborations between Nelson Goodman and his artist collaborators：composer John Adams，choreographer Martha Grey，visual artist Katherine Sturgis，and media artist Gerd Stern are located in the archives of the Haggerty Museum of Art，Marquette University.As well Goodman’s practices as philosopher demonstrates well how a philosopher of dance is able to extend his philosophical understanding to the practices of dance as a form of art to education and other aspects of experience.③Nelson Goodman’s notes and correspondence with composer John Adams and other participants in Hockey Seen are located in the Archives of the Haggerty Museum of Art，Marquette University.

III. Expectations for a Philosophy of Dance

Having referenced both historic and recent contributions the philosophy of dance, what then might we expect of a future for the philosophy of dance? The answers to this question might vary in reference to our understanding of philosophy. One aim of a philosophy of dance is to develop concepts and theories that seek to explain to the art of dancing, and to reflect critically on the concepts and theories of dance previously advanced by philosophers and other thinkers. In this respect, one aim of creating a philosophy of dance is to post dance along side other arts music, painting, sculpture, and now the media arts including film, video, and other electronic media arts whose legacies are boosted by philosophical understanding.

Accounting for the role of bodily movements, whether in solo or ensemble formations, is of course a central concept pertaining to dance. But bodily movement is also key to many everyday human activities. How does movement energized and framed in the body of the dancer for aesthetic purposes differ from movement in everyday life? There are common elements to be sure. Even when modern and contemporary choreographers abandon the movement languages of western classical ballet, or a traditional eastern dance form, and create dances using every day movement there remains a difference between ordinary street movement, and what appears before an audience gathered to experience dance as a form of art. Choreographic form, bodily expressiveness, theatrical setting, and the presence of an audience all serve to distinguish dance performance from everyday life. The presence of an audience with certain expectations already sets apart the movement in the dance from everyday street movement. Moreover, the aim of dance in the theater is driven by concepts provided by the choreographer. Dance as a form of art is comprised of patterns of form generated through the ideas of a choreographer and transferred in the actions of the moving bodies to the audience through technique and style. One aim of this process is to engage the viewer’s attention and absorption of the feelings and ideas being addressed in the process of experiencing the dance.

IV. Current State of Dance Aesthetics and Future Options

What then are some options for the advancement of the future of the philosophy of dance? Aesthetics, the area of philosophy dedicated to understanding the arts and their place in culture, as intended here, provides the philosophical frameworks that offer concepts and means of reasoning useful for characterizing and understanding the arts, experiences of the arts, and their role in societal and educational settings. Aesthetics provides the means for differentiating among various forms of the arts and their relations to each other and their role in the larger culture. With respect to dance, a particular art, aesthetics helps to identify and analyze its distinctive aspects. Attention to the viewer’s experience of dance is similarly an aspect of the aesthetics of dance. Aesthetics thus serves as a cornerstone of philosophy of dance by identifying distinctive aspects of dance as a form of art, and its relation to other forms of art.

In looking to the future of the philosophy of dance, it is important to note that no one philosophical perspective need assume that it alone is necessarily sufficient for addressing all of the issues pertaining to a philosophical understanding of dance. Essentialist philosophers might wish to continue advancing an understanding of dance philosophy by identifying characteristics of what counts as dance as a particular type of cultural activity, or as one of the cultural forms to be included in the arts. A phenomenologist might focus on the particular types of experience that occur in the practices and understanding of dance. Alternatively, British-American analytic philosophers would seek to clarify the concepts used in philosophical discussions of dance, and the logic used in considering various aspects of dance in its role as a form of art. Philosophies focused on the human body such as Somaesthetics, as advanced by philosopher Richard Shusterman and others, seem well suited to address bodily aspects of aspects of the philosophy of dance.①SHUSTERMAN R. Thinking Through the Body：Essays in Somaesthetics［M］. New York：Cambridge University Press，2012：8 ff.As well, the philosophy of dance may draw upon the sciences including psychology and kinesiology for a better understanding of dance movement. It seems that a pluralist view, taking the insights of the various theories may generate more understanding of the various aspects of dance, than adopting a narrower understanding of philosophy.

Given the current state of the philosophy dance, what are some of the on-going issues that warrant further discussion? First, it seems clear that scholars interested in advancing the philosophy of dance, whether coming from groundings in dance practices as choreographer or performer, dance history, dance criticism, or philosophy itself will need a solid understanding of dance itself, as well as grounding in the practices of philosophy. No doubt philosophers of dance will benefit from knowledge of dance history and criticism, as well from viewing a range of performances from a variety of dance styles.

What are some of the issues that will continue to require on-going consideration in the philosophy of dance? Among these will be continuation of refinements in the language that we employ to consider dance as a form of art. Concepts generated by philosophy will need to be merged more closely with the experiences of choreographing and performing dances. The problem here is how to best characterize dance in a philosophical context given its varied particular characteristics and diverse forms. Contributing to what counts as dance are both elements of feeling and the formal elements that give dance its structure, informed by cultural variants. Is the dance best understood as a choreographer’s notational score, or as the expressive actions involved in performing dance? What is the place of the music accompanying the dance in its identity? Another area of future research for dance aesthetics is the connections of dance as an art grounded in bodily movement to music and other theatrical means including the framing of dance in the architecture of the theatre stage, and aesthetic of lighting and staging, even costumes. How does a change in performers affect the identity of a dance work? The identity of a dance work, when all of these elements are considered becomes very complex.

Among the neglected areas in current philosophy of dance, is the role of dance in reference to contemporary societal concerns. Recalling Plato’s concern with the dance in educating the community and the current societal concerns, here is an area that philosophers of dance might find of interest to explore. Have we left reflections on the philosophy of dance in the shadows of the “art for art’s sake” era? Without access to words for articulating issues pertaining to social justice, for example, what are the means by which dance may enter into contemporary issues relating to gender identities, racial abuses, and cultural migration?

Also, largely missing from current discussions of the philosophy of dance are questions relating to the fact that we now live in an era of globalization and change.①While there are studies taking place concerning current and past dance practices and the migration of popular dance styles，there seems to be a gap in addressing globalization as it might relate to the future of the philosophy of dance.Given that artistic dance exists in multiple cultures where forms of artistic dance appear in advanced stages of artistry, can we speak of philosophy of dance that embraces all forms of artistic dance? The focus here has mainly been on the philosophy of western dance as a form of performance art. To fully appreciate the broader scope of philosophy of dance it will be necessary to consider a range of dance in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East for example, where the elements of formal dance extend into ritual and mythical practices and other forms of community life. The question here then is whether it is possible to think simply of a philosophy of dance in general, or whether it is more desirable to think of philosophies of dance instead of attempting to formulate a single approach to the philosophy of dance?

Conclusion

By way of concluding, among the central questions concerning the philosophy of dance then become these: How does dance benefit from a philosophy of dance? Among the important contributions of philosophy of dance is that it brings dance into the company of other forms of art for comparison, allowing for identifying common elements that dance shares with other art forms, and for taking note of important differences, for example, the central role of bodily movement in dance. Similarly, philosophy of dance aids in positioning dance as a form of experience and knowledge alongside other forms of knowledge in literature and the sciences. One might hope as well that the philosophy of dance serves an important place in dance education if not in a larger sphere of public interest.

A second question concerns methodology for the philosophy of dance. A philosopher’s ways for developing theories that address such issues combines observation and general concepts such as movement, time, and expression. Her answer consists in abstract ideas and arguments aimed at clarifying differences in understanding which replace the immediate impressions of the dancer’s movements with word formulations enabling her to convey the hows and whys of dancing in philosophical language. A knowledge of the history and criticism of dance will be useful here as well as awareness of the range of dance performances past and current.

Philosophy of dance today must be open to new concepts and theories necessary to enliven philosophical interests in dance. But it need not ignore the insights concerning dance that have accumulated over centuries of prior philosophical reflections on dance as it has evolved as a form of artistic expression. To reflect critically on the concepts and theories previously generated by philosophers and other thinkers and questions relating to their applications to current understanding of dance remains a source of insights useful to projecting the future of the philosophy of dance.