Characterizing conservative and protective needs of the aridland forests of Sudan

Nasradeen A. H. Gadallah · Abdelnasir I. A. Hano ·Eiman Diab · Galal Omer

Abstract Forests in the aridlands of Sudan are distinctive in nature and require special attention due to the great role they play as a f irst and last line of defense against southward desertif ication. Thus, to determine their conservative and protective needs based on current conditions in the Wad Al-Bashir Forest (WF), toward ensuring sustainable forest resources in these areas, we used a systematic f ield survey,existing and available documents review and key informant interviews (KII), to collect data from 08 December 2017 to 15 May 2018. A severe depletion and changes in the forest tree cover and composition were found during the f ield survey, where species such as Balanitis aegyptiaca is threatened and invasive species (e.g., Acacia nubica) have started to dominate. Reviewed documents have credited illegal cutting and agricultural activities for the changes in the forest status, whereas the KII indicated that past and current forest conservative and protective practices (CPPs), where forest clearance for agricultural, grazing, pests and disease control, were not given a deserved consideration as they relate to tree cutting and reforestation practices. Likewise,negligence of the needs of those who depend on the forest and inadequate funds have constrained implementation of some CPPs. Accordingly, on the basis of the results of this study, we recommend that CPPs associated with agriculture,grazing, forest f ire, pest and disease control should be a top priority concern of forest authorities. Better f inancial support, which could be enriched by involving governmental and non-governmental organizations, is also needed to boost CPPs in the WF. Invasive species also need to be cleared and replaced by trees such as A. senegal and B. aegyptiaca that are of economic and environmental value.

Keywords Dry forest · Forest conservation · Protection ·Desertif ication

Introduction

Forest ecosystems remain essential asylums for biodiversity and peoples in drylands (FAO 2014, 2016; Ahuja 2017).Globally, the past decades have witnessed greater than before attention to the issue of conservation and sustainable use of forest resources irrespective of their types. Forests are of great importance to millions of people, especially those whose livelihood largely depends on them ( Shackleton 2004; Pretzsch 2015; Boon et al. 2009). Their role in protecting the environment as of tremendous importance to the sustainable development of every society (Jusof f 2008; Katerere et al. 2009; HLPE 2017). These forests are impacted by enormous factors such as climate and human activities and each forest type is unique and the forests complement one another and provide various socioeconomic, ecological and environmental services (Ansong et al. 2011; Grebner et al. 2013; Leblois et al. 2017). The world’s drylands covers two-f ifths of the Earth’s land surface and are some of the most threatened areas, yet these disregarded ecosystems include 7 of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots (FAO 2016; Bastin et al. 2017). In addition, the dryland forests continue to have essential roles at the global and local levels, providing prodigious ecosystem services and benef its to humans such as protecting soil and regulating climate and water resources (Grebner et al. 2013; Milton 2015;IFAD 2016). Thus, their decline is considered one of the most critical environmental problems, diminishing fauna and f lora diversity, lessening forest product yields and other supportive benef its (Mohamed et al. 2016; Bastin et al. 2017;Gadallah et al. 2019).

Because dryland forests are sensitive ecosystems and especially vulnerable to negative impacts from biotic and abiotic disturbances (Curtis et al. 2018), illegal trees logging, livestock grazing, conversion of forestland into farmlands and lack of forest management plans have been major causes of deforestation and forest degradation drivers in Sudan that led to the current forest loss (Gafaar 2011; FAO 2015; Gadallah 2019). Meanwhile, southward-creeping desertification is increasing the risk of deterioration of these forest resources (Edris et al. 2013; Mohamed 2016;Mohamed et al. 2016). Understanding how human activities af fect ecosystems and ecological processes within the dryland forests is essential for developing ef fective protection and conservation actions. Thus, here we analyzed the conservative and protective needs for forests in the drylands based on the current conditions in Wad Al-Bashir forest toward restoring the devastated sites and protecting and conserving the existing ones in these areas.

Material and methods

Study area

Gedaref State is covering 78,000 km 2 in eastern Sudan and stretches between 33 and 36° E and 12–15° N. It bordered by the states of Khartoum and Gezira to the west, Kassala to the north and Sennar to the southwest. Of the total population of 1,419,485 people in 2008, 27% are urban and 73%are rural farmers (SSGCM 2012). Agriculture was and still is the main economic activity, followed by livestock raising,gum collecting and trading of forest products (Glover 2005;Hemida 2016).

The Wad Al-Bashir forest (WF) is located between Al-Hawata and Al-Mafaza areas in the western part of the state(34°36′36″ E – 34°37′30″ E, 13°30′9″ N – 13°33′19″ N,with an area of 3468 ha. As reported by Harison and Jackson(1958), the vegetation map of Sudan shows Gedaref State in a zone of low-rainfall woodland savanna on clay. The WF area is located near the transition between two main vegetation types in this zone:Acacia melliferathorn land andAcacia seyal-Balanitesaegyptiacawoodlands. Therefore, this area was selected due to its geographical position in Sudan’s dry regions as one of class two (moderately desertif ied) states, which had a fairly good vegetative cover,but currently, the land has been serious degraded as a result of irrational mechanized farming, extensive woodcutting and overgrazing (NDDC/UNDP 2006).

Climatologically, WF is in a semi-arid zone, with summer rains and warm winter. The rainfall is characterized by a unimodal pattern, ranging from 400 to 800 mm with an annual average of 600 mm (Fig. 1) and f luctuates between June and September, reaching its peak in August (Glover 2005; Hemida 2016; SSGCM 2012). The southwest monsoon maritime wind, responsible for bringing the rains,blows across the Gedaref area from May to October and from November to April; the area experiences a prevailing northerly wind. Temperature is very high in summer and mild in winter. The average daily maximum temperature ranges from 25 to 40 °C, while the average daily minimum temperature ranges between 13 and 20 °C (Fig. 2). Relative humidity rises from its normal level of 20%–70% in the rainy season (Glover 2005).

Data collection

We used a systematic f ield survey and observations, existing and available scientif ic and Forests National Corporation(FNC) documents associated with conservation and protection, along with key informant interviews (KII). These data were collected from 8 December 2017 to 15 May 2018.Reviewing published documents is a low-cost way to obtain empirical data as evidence that, combined with data from interviews and observations, can establish credibility of the evidence (Bowen 2009).

Fig. 1 Monthly average precipitation for 2006–2015 in Gedaref State, Sudan. Adapted from meteorological data of Gedaref State Station, Sudan (SSGCM 2018)

Fig. 2 Monthly average temperature for 2006–2015 in Gedaref State,Sudan. Adapted from meteorological data of Gedaref State station,Sudan (SSGCM 2018)

We initially reviewed scientific and FNC documents(published books and articles, annual reports, management plans and strategies) in which the past history of this forest was described in terms of dominant trees species, protection and conservation methods and practices and threats to tree health. These documents were used to help the researchers discover underlying issues, develop understanding and insights of forest conservation and protection challenges and needs. The KII was conducted to include experts and elderly people (typically men between 50 and 78 years old), who were carefully chosen for their rich indigenous and modern knowledge on forest conservation and protection. Thus, f ive key informants from leaders of communities (1), nomads(2), farmers union (1) and FNC personnel (1) were selected purposively and subsequently questioned and interviewed on the status of the drylands forest and their conservative and protective practices (CPPs) and needs. This step qualitatively considers the evaluation of forest CPPs (i.e., regulating and planning for trees cutting, forest f ire control, grazing control, pest and disease control and monitoring, checking forest clearance for agricultural purposes, proper utilization of forest products and af forestation and reforestation), which have been ranked based on a scale from poor, good and excellent to determine consistencies and inconsistencies in the study area.

Subsequently and as a judgmental step, the aforementioned methods and data were supported by a f ield survey where the current forest status and conditions were evaluated. Software such as Map-Source-version 6.11.5(Garmin Ltd., Lenexa, Kansas, USA). And Arc-Mapversion 10.5 (ESRI, Redlands, CA, USA) were used to prepare the geo-sampling sites, then located using GPS for the actual sampling. Thus, during the systematic sampling,data were collected from 58 circular sample plots (radius 100 m = 31,400 m 2 ) that were separated by 800 × 800 m as depicted in Fig. 3. In each sample plot, detrimental and disadvantageous factors, trees species and tree regeneration status were recorded. This phase thus provided insight on the status of the forest cover, tree diversity and the forest CPPs needed to sustain this forest.

Fig. 3 Field survey sampling techniques in Wad Al-Bashir Forest,Gedaref State, Sudan

Data analyses

Data from the previous documents were interpreted by examining and inferring information linked to forest conservation and protection as a reference for valuating the present state and performance of the forest CPPs in categorical form. Such document investigation is an important research tool and an invaluable part of most schemes to triangulate methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon (Bowen 2009).

The KII data, on the other hand, is generally qualitative data and were therefore summarized, categorized and statistically analyzed using Excel-version 2016 (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA) and SPSS-version 25 (IBM,Armonk, NY, USA), particularly to describe congregated data and subsequently illustrated in a f igure. Although the KII covered wide-range responses, the focus was only on the CPPs that providing a broad understanding of the forest status as well as its sustainability. Additionally, data gathered through f ield survey were also descriptively analyzed where trees species abundance and conditions were well thought out.

Results and discussion

Status of forests protection and conservation in the study area

On the basis of the systematic f ield survey, concern for forest protection and conservation was typically less than it could be. The status of tree composition and cover is deteriorating due to the major irresponsible human activities (e.g., illegal cutting and uncontrolled grazing which were observed and evaluated during the f ield survey and assessment) and biotic and abiotic forest disturbances such as winds andSinxoylon senegalensisinsects, respectively. These factors are threats that could further degrade forested areas unless appropriate conservative and protective measures are undertaken to curtail their ef fects (Eltoum et al. 2015; Tegegne et al.2016). Forest conservation and protection approaches help maintaining forest ecosystems and biodiversity (NRC 2017).Horák ( 2014) termed forest protection as a way of protecting the forests from any threat by combining the knowledge from forest ecology and entomology among others, whereas forest conservation refers to activities, tools and approaches to maintain and promote forest health and biodiversity(Pawar et al. 2015).Globally, several studies corroborated, scientif ically and economically, how important forests are, in terms of their various environmental and socioeconomic functions (Perman et al. 2003; Wunder et al. 2014; Rasmussen et al. 2017).Hence, forests are called the lungs of the environment and oxygen-producing factory and various other very important products that needed for the environment and humans to live(Higman et al. 2005; Grebner et al. 2013). A United Nations conference on the environment and development emphasized the necessity for developing harmonized approaches to manage and conserve forests to meet the socioeconomic and environmental needs of the present and future generations (UNCED 1992). Decisively, protecting and conserving the Wad Al-Bashir forest will sustain its services as it plays a vital role in preventing soil and providing wood and non-woody forest products as indicated in FNC reports and key informants’ responses. Specif ically, building material,f irewood, fodder and gum products have been supporting commodities to the local communities.

Past and current trees species

The current tree species and abundance were identif ied through f ield survey observations, while data on past species and abundance were gathered from previous reports(i.e., FNC records from 1995 − 2018; Faculty of Forestry[FOF] study’s working plan 2014). The association of past(13 species) and present status (11 species-including invasive species) found four tree species had disappeared (e.g.,Acacia tortilisandDichrostachys cinerea), some decreased in their abundance due to such climatic and anthropogenic actors and others have survived (Fig. 4). This f igure shows species in descending order of their abundance.

Forests in drylands are largely thought to generate a wealth of environmental services such as habitats that support biodiversity, protect against erosion, help water inf iltrate soils and contribute to soil fertility (Malagnoux et al.

2008; Katerere et al. 2009; FAO 2015; Wilson et al. 2017)and increase the resilience of landscapes and communities to the impacts of climate change (FAO 2016). The FNC authority at Wad Al-Bashir forest is using more-adaptable species with high environmental and economic value. Figure 4 shows species that decreased or increased in their abundance; most species decreased in abundance while three species (i.e.,Acacia seyal,A. f istula, A. mellifera) have increased due to the FNC plan to meet socioeconomic and environmental needs.

Key informant interview f indings recognized the reasons that led to trees species’ disappearance in the study area.The majority of interviewees stated that illicit cutting for livelihood, energy and building materials are leading these drivers, followed by unplanned grazing and pest ef fects. This could manifest how much these communities depend on the forest and its products. In this respect, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) report, has described life in the drylands as precarious and the socioeconomic status of people in these areas is signif icantly lower than that of people in many other areas. The same report gives reason stood behind this status like surrounding harsh conditions such as water scarcity, which poses one-third of these areas inhabitants to below the threshold for minimum human well-being and sustainable development. On the other hand, others attested the trees extinction or richness decreasing; due to the improper forest conservation and protection practices that go back to the local forest authorities. Therefore, Fig. 5 illustrates the morphological nature of some tree species that struggle to live in the harsh conditions.

Fig. 4 Past and present trees species in Wad Al-Bashir Forest.Adapted from ( Harrison et al. 1958; Gafaar 2011; FOF 2014)

Conservative and protective practices in the study area

In the context of wise utilization, preservation and or renewal of forests for the greatest goods and services for the people over the long term (Aymeric et al. 2014), dryland forested areas need to be conserved and protected not only for environmental purposes but also for peoples’ needs and livelihoods (Smriti 2016). The best practices for one area will dif fer from those for others in terms of the nature,capability and work intensity. In this regard, the drylands forests of Sudan are distinctive in nature and require special attention to strengthen not only the local ecosystem for the inhabitants but also the national and regional environments. Accordingly, FNC reports and key informants have described the past and current conservative and protective practices and how they contributed to the forest cover state.Figure 6 summarizes the ranking evaluation of these practices in terms of the level of concern.

Based on Fig. 6, practices such as checking forest clearance for agricultural purposes, pests, disease and grazing control were frequently ignored as they relate to tree cutting and reforestation practices. The lack of adherence to recommendations is likely not due to lack of income from harvested trees or governmental and nongovernmental organizations funding for reforestation programs,but rather to the low priority-budgets set for conservation and development of the forestry sector in Sudan (HCENR 2009). Therefore, f inancial support for well-trained staf f will boost forest conservation and protection measures in this area.

As a f inal point, if there is a question to be raised, why do dryland forests remain unstable? On the basis of the information from the three sources of data for our study,of the many anthropogenic and natural factors (see Fig. 7)that inf luence forest status, the most important ones are people’s diverse activities to generate income and energy from the beginning of humankind (Kissinger et al. 2012;Horák 2014; Tegegne et al. 2016). This present study distinguished three main factors that have had a major impact on forest resources in the area: forest authorities plans and activities, biotic and abiotic disturbances and forest dependents (livelihoods, energy source and culture toward forest sustainability). Therefore, human activities in Wad Al-Bashir forest are considered a paradox in terms of developing or degrading the area’s forests resources.

Fig. 5 Morphological nature of dominant tree species in Wad Al-Bashir forest, Gedaref state of Sudan

Fig. 6 Ranking of CPPs in Wad Al-Bashir Forest in FNC reports and by key informants

Fig. 7 Activities that have contributed to Wad Al-Bashir forest deterioration. Farming inside forestland a, vines b,invasive species such as Acacia nubica c, wind d, illegal tree cutting e, uncontrolled grazing f and pests such as Seneoxylon senegalensis g

Opportunities and challenges for sustaining Wad Al-Bashir Forest

Forests provide livelihoods for many rural communities in most developing countries (Ngwa et al. 2002; Pretzsch 2015). Forest resource in Sudan is reported as most important at the local and national levels because it supports the economy and livelihoods of communities by providing wood and nonwood forest products and numerous services provided in the enhancement of agricultural production and maintenance of hydrological cycles (Elsiddig et al. 2007).This sector contributes 15% to the country GDP, 15% of the job opportunities available in the rural areas, 30% of the feed of the national herds and 70% of the total national household energy consumption (Elsiddig et al. 2007; HCENR 2009;Elsiddig 2015; Hemida 2016).

Similarly, based on our review of reports and f ield survey observations, the Wad Al-Bashir forest provides non-wood forest products such as gum arabic, fuelwood and fodder for tens of herds and enhances agriculture yields and thus contributing to incomes. Nevertheless, these services in the forest state’s account which contribute to deforestation and forest degradation. For instance, agriculture expanded into the forested area in a search for fertile soil for crop production and is especially rampant in Gedaref State (FAO 2012).Such agriculture expansion is globally a major proximate deforestation driver (Geist et al. 2002; Chakravarty et al.2012; Hosonuma et al. 2012; UNREDD 2018). Thus, we advise that investing in non-wood forest products such as gum arabic could generate better revenue and retain forest cover than agroforestry, especially because Sudan is a major world producer of gum arabic (Gafaar 2011).

Moreover, Wad Al-Bashir forest is a provider of energy and building materials for neighboring communities, but unfortunately in illegal ways, which likely leads to more deforestation and land degradation, especially in areas that are defenseless against desertif ication. Thus, special attention is needed to provide for the needs of those who depend on the forest while creating ef fective laws that will help to sustain forest resources now and in the future. On the other hand, the presence of herds in forestlands during the rainy season, the only period for tree regeneration and growth,hinders tree growth and development. Uncontrolled grazing has proven to be disastrous in the forest sector, especially in desert-vulnerable areas like Sudan (Eltoum et al. 2015;Oha et al. 2013). Although the Wad Al-Bashir forest of fers tangible and intangible services and opportunities to the local communities, the risk of it disappearing is likely high because of the high population growth rates and poverty that characterize the communities (World Bank 2016).

Conclusion

In this appraisal of the status of Wad Al-Bashir forest in terms of conservation and protection practices and associated threats, we found the human pressure has resulted in severe forest degradation generally and declining of some trees species due to the low concern that given to forest protection and conservation practices. Correspondingly,forest cover has sunk and some invasive species started to dominate, which requires sound measures and interventions.While this area is frequently stressed by climate and anthropogenic factors, it is still rich in biodiversity and has the potential to supply in-demand commodities on a sustainable basis if its conservative and protective needs have been meticulously met.This study recommends that conservative and protective practices such as monitoring agricultural uses, invasive species, grazing activities, forest f ire, pests and diseases control should be the f irst consideration of forest authorities, along with establishing nurseries and protected areas to conserve threatened tree species such asBalanitis aegyptiaca. Investing in non-wood forest products such as gum arabic will generate the best revenues and forest cover as opposed to agroforestry activities in the forestland. In addition, special measures should be taken for interactions between humans and forest resources in this area. More satisfactory f inancial support is needed to boost these practices, which could be enriched by involving forest stakeholders.

AcknowledgmentThe authors thank the Sudanese National Forest Corporation’s personnel in Khartoum and Gedaref States for their contributions to the study. Many thanks are given to colleagues that participated directly or indirectly in the data collection and analysis process.