从预设角度看法庭审判中的语言运用
——以辛普森案为例
2021-03-08田恩泽
田恩泽
(武汉船舶职业技术学院,湖北武汉 430050)
1994年前,美国著名橄榄球运动员辛普森,被指控谋杀了前妻。二十多年后,这个震惊全美的案件被搬上荧屏时,吸引了大量观众的关注。随着《美国犯罪故事:辛普森挑战公众》热播,公众再次关注到这个曾经空前震动的案件,关于此案的更多细节也被披露。因为此案的审理过程太过戏剧性,辛普森成为了美国历史上被指控为谋杀罪的最臭名昭著的人。这场全球瞩目的世纪审判一波三折,在长达九个月的审理之后,辛普森被宣告无罪。而在庭审过程中,控辩双方采用了诸多手段在询问环节来获得对己方有利的证词,预设就是其中的方法之一。本文拟通过分析辛普森案庭审中的询问环节,剖析预设在询问中的运用,展现控辩双方如何使用语言学技巧实现各自的目的。
1 预设理论
预设(presupposition),也叫“前提”,这一概念最先由德国哲学家弗雷格(Frege)于1892年提出。他认为预设理论大致包括以下三个要点:
(1)指称短语和时间分句均有所指,因而具有前提;
(2)一个句子和它的否定形式具有同样的预设信息;
(3)句子或声音,无论真实或谬误,其预设必须成立。
随后,其观点被英国语言学家斯特劳森(Strawson)接纳并发展,从逻辑语义学角度将预设看作是句子或者命题之间的关系。然而越来越多的语言学家发现语义预设具有一些非语言性的特点,具有可取消性,意识到预设并非是单纯的语义现象,并提出了语用预设这一概念,指出预设需要结合语境,例如说话人关系、共有的背景知识等方面综合判断。因此从语义学角度看,预设是句子本身具有的一层意义;从语用学角度看,预设是说话人的设想。
预设具有三个特性,即单向性、主观性和隐蔽性。单向性是指预设是由说话人单方强加的,只有通过会话,预设才能在必要时被明确识别。主观性是指表示事实陈述的句子假设,本身并不必然正确或真实,这取决于说话人的态度和信念。隐蔽性是指预设部分的隐含意义可以悄无声息地把说话人的“断言”看作真实而接受并回答。利用预设的这三个特点,庭审双方可采取一定的策略性提问,触发预设,隐蔽地将己方认定的事实单方面强加给对方,从而对辩护、审理等产生重要的影响。
2 预设触发语
预设触发语指的是能够引发预设产生的词语或特定结构。卡顿林(Karttunen)和莱文森(Levinson)对触发语进行了收集和归纳,本文将庭审中常见的预设触发语分类如下:
2.1 词汇层面
2.1.1动词
(1)叙实性动词,预设动词后的宾语或宾语从句中描述的事情已经发生、成为事实,例如aware, realize, know等。
例:He didn’t realize that he was alcohol addicted.
预设为:He was alcohol addicted.
(2)含蓄性动词,例如manage, forget, avoid, plan等。
例:Simpson forgot that he asked Mr.Shipp the question.
预设为:Simpson asked Mr.Shipp the question.
(3)状态变化动词,例如begin, stop, turn等。
例:I continued to yell at her.
预设为:I had been yelling at her.
(4)反复性动词,例如repeat, return, come back等。
例:You repeated the action, didn’t you?
预设为:You did that action.
2.1.2限制性词
(1)冠词。如a, an, the。
(2)代词。如 his, her ,our, their等。
例:His wife is pregnant.
预设为:He has a wife.
(3)其他表达。如 another, only等。
例:Miss Han, we have another one.
预设为:We’ve already had one.
2.1.3表迭代的词
如 again, too, either等。
例:Come here my varlet, I’ll unarm again.
预设为:I unarmed once.
2.1.4其他词
如 even, still, just等。
例:He is a strict vegetarian—he doesn’t even eat cheese.
预设为:So certainly, he will not eat any others.
2.2 句法层面
2.2.1时间状语从句
如 before, after, during, whenever, when, as…
例:What did you do before you became a doctor?
本句所隐含的预设为:You are now a doctor and you did something else previously.
2.2.2对比和比较
如 more than, as much as, 以及其他的对比结构。
例:Jack is/isn’t a better teacher than Mary.
本句所隐含的预设为:Mary is a teacher.
2.2.3反事实条件句。
例:If only I had known his address.
本句所隐含的预设为:I did not know his address.
2.2.4非限制性定语从句
如who, which, when, where等。
例:My cousin, who is an engineer, went/didn’t go to Europe last week.
本句所隐含的预设为:My cousin is an engineer.
2.2.5分裂句,只能用yes/no回答的一般疑问句,反义疑问句,wh-引导的特殊疑问句。
例:It was/wasn’t Jane who called this morning.
本句所隐含的预设为:Someone called this morning.
例:Do you like English?
本句所隐含的预设为:Either you like English or you don’t like English.
例:What Jack lost/didn’t lose was his watch.
本句所隐含的预设为:Jack lost something.
3 预设理论在辛普森案中的运用
(1)下面是辩方律师对探员进行交叉询问,主要目的是探究探员是否在审讯时间之外讯问过辛普森,在办案时的问话是否符合程序正义。
Q: Did you ever ask Mr.Simpson any question about a shovel?
A: I never asked--
DA: Objection.Assumes he ever asked anything.
The court: Overruled.
Q: Did you?
A: I’ve never asked Mr.Simpson any questions....
Q: Okay.
从这组对话可以看到,辩方律师在对探员进行交叉询问时,使用“any question about a shovel”来迷惑探员,企图转移探员注意力,转去思考是否问过关于“一个铁锹”的问题,而辩方预设的信息是“探员问过问题”。如果探员在规定情境外对辛普森进行过问话,可能导致程序的不正义。控方律师在觉察到辩方的企图后,立刻向法官表示反对,然而法官表示反对无效,示意辩方提问继续。而此时,探员也觉察到了对方提问的预设,警惕地答道“并未向辛普森提问任何问题”,坚定己方并未破坏程序正义。
(2)在接下来的交叉询问中,辩方律师改变了询问句式,通过一些间接的表述来证实探员在搜集证据时存在失误,导致关键证据即手套的可信度不足,从而获取对己方有利的供词,来推翻关键证据的有效性。
Q1: You had three detectives who were armed in the house and didn’t tell any of them where you were going, correct?
A1: That’s correct.
Q2: You didn’t ask any of them to come with you to cover for you, correct?
A2: That’s correct.
Q3: You had previously stated there was a possibility that dangerous people were on the premises, had you not?
A3: I never used those words.
Q4: You know that you were not equipped with any protective gear, correct?
A4: I was not.
Q5: Now, if that glove had been there where you say you found it, it would have been placed there by someone involved in the homicide; isn’t that conclusion compelled?
A5: I would assume that, yes.
Q6: That would be a vicious killer of some sort, would it not?
A6: Yes.
Q7: And you hung around for fifteen minutes with no back-up and no vest doing something; is that correct?
A7: No, it isn’t.
Q8: All right.
在以上庭审对话中,辩方律师质问探员在现场发现关键证据手套后,为什么独自一人呆在案发现场,使用了反义疑问句和平行句式来加强语气,以此来证实某一隐藏的事实已经发生。问句中的从句反映的是被询问者默认的事实,从而触发预设。问句Q1-Q7隐含的预设都不能被否定回答取消,这样辩方律师就在提问中巧妙地隐藏了问话的真实意图,成功地隐含了存在性预设,即探员可能有独自在案发现场的时间,并趁人不备伪造了证据。即使退一步说,探员可能在采集证据过程中取证不规范,导致证据遭到污染,证据的可信度大打折扣,暗指法庭不应采信此证据。
(3)在这一段交叉询问中,辩方律师试图通过证明探员的品格有缺陷,来否定探员的证词有效性。
Q1: Do you remember meeting a woman named Kathleen Bell at that marine recruiting office between 1985 and 1986?
A1: No.
Q2: Did you say while in the recruiting station at any time during those years that when you see a nigger driving with a white woman, you pull them over?
A2: No.
Q3: Do you recall anyone asking you if you didn’t have a reason to pull them over, what would you do?
A3: I don’t recall anybody ever asking me that question, sir.
Q4: Did you ever make a statement that if you needed a reason, you would find one?
A4: No.
Q5: Okay.Next paragraph.Did you say at any time in that recruiting station in the presence of any female including Kathleen Bell that you’d like nothing more than to see all niggers gathered together and killed?
A5: No....
Q6: Okay.
…
Q7: Did you see a woman who called herself Kathleen Bell?
A7: Yes.
因受判例法系中“品格证据”传统的影响,美国的证据法和判例都规定,如果出庭证人的品格被证明有缺陷,则证人的某些证词就不具有法律效力。所以,在法庭审判时,控辩双方律师都会在证人的个人品格上大做文章。此外,在法庭宣誓之后,如果一位证人在一部分证词中故意撒谎,那么陪审团可以将这位证人的其它证词也视为谎言。
在询问的开始,辩方律师用问句Q1“Do you remember…”来触发预设,暗示探员在酒吧遇到过一位叫凯瑟琳的女士,只是记得或者忘记了。随后用“Did you say…”来固定预设内容,即探员在酒吧这样的公共场合发表过歧视黑人的言论,暗示探员是种族主义者。紧接着,辩方律师继续采用类似句式“Do you recall…”和“Did you ever make a statement…”来引出探员的具体发言,同样这些问题隐藏的预设信息并不能用否定回答取消,即证明探员的确发表过种族歧视言论。最后,律师再次询问Q7,“你是否见过一名叫凯瑟琳的女士”。此次,探员被逼到了绝境,心态崩塌,从刚开始A1的否定回答“没有”,转变成A7的“的确见过”。自此,探员的回答A1和A7截然相反,辩方律师成功从正面证实探员撒了谎,他的证词不可信,并且他的其他证词也可能是谎言。通过预设的询问,辩方把探员描绘成“一个拥护种族灭绝政策的种族主义者、一个作伪证的家伙、美国最令人可怕的恶梦和魔鬼的化身”。
4 结 语
本文基于辛普森庭审案的文本分析,发现本案庭审中辩方律师利用语言学技巧触发预设,来隐藏提问目的,降低被提问者的警惕,诱导甚至支配对方说出有利于本方的事实,从而操控庭审发展方向。然而,由于控辩双方不同的立场,预设策略常被律师用作语言陷阱来影响被提问者的回答,因而庭审中预设策略的潜在影响是不容小觑的。