明清建筑:博采众长的典范

文/五花肉

（支持单位：上海市质量和标准化研究院）

从大气磅礴的紫禁城，到风姿绰约的江南园林，历经秦汉、唐宋的发展，博采众长、百花齐放的明清建筑，其设计理念和技术标准日臻完善，被公认为是中国古建筑的巅峰之作。

From the grand and majestic Forbidden City to graceful and charming gardens in Yangtze Delta area, architectures of the Ming and Qing Dynasties were enriched through solid development in the Qin, Han, Tang and Song Dynasties, were regarded as a crowning achievement in Chinese ancient architecture history, with the continuous development of design concepts and technical standards by extensively absorbing essential and advanced architectural ideas.

砖建材料标准化

Standardized Building Materials

受益于制砖技术的逐步成熟，明清时期的砖建房屋开始逐渐普及，对砖瓦的质量要求也日趋严格。

Thanks to the continuous development of the brickmaking techniques, brick buildings were more and more commonly seen in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and the quality requirements on bricks and tiles were increasingly strict.

明洪武二十六年规定：“凡在京营造合用砖瓦，每岁于聚宝山置窑烧造，其大小、厚薄、样制及人工、芦柴数目，俱有定例。”砖瓦等建筑材料的制作、规格、用料自此有了严格的标准要求，这些标准的推广实施也为日后清工部《工程做法则例》的出台打下了扎实的技术基础。

In 1393, it was prescribed that "For manufacture of bricks and tiles for architecture construction in Beijing, kilns shall be set at Jubaoshan (a local place in Beijing) annually, and the size, thickness,model, labor and firewood amount shall meet the requirements." Development and implementation of these standards laid solid technical foundation for the Codes for Architecture Construction later issued by the Ministry of Works in the Qing Dynasty.

建筑模数制度化

Institutionalized Construction Module

“斗口有头等材、二等材，以至十一等材之分。”

"Doukou, the mortise of cap block, has eleven grades."

雍正十二年（公元1734年），清代官方颁布清工部《工程做法则例》，在宋“材份制”的基础上，进一步完善建筑模数，形成“斗口制”。“斗口制”以斗口为建筑设计的基本单位，将建材划分为11等，5分为等差，级数划一，工匠只要按此用材标准，就能准确地把握建筑的尺度，利于计算和施工，建筑模数制度化基本成型。

In 1734, the government issued Codes for Architecture Construction. The construction module of Doukou system was developed basing on the grading system in the Song Dynasty, in which the cross section size of the material used in the bucket arch or square was one piece of material. In Doukou system, Doukou was the unit of architectural design. The building materials were divided into 11 grades with an equal diあerence of 0.5 Fen (unit of measurement at that time). According to the standard, craftsmen estimated the precise scale of the building, and better conduct calculation and construction. Thus, the system of construction module was basically shaped.

建筑制图样式化

Stylized Architectural Graphing

明清建筑的另一个标志性突破，就是制图标准体系的建立和完善，相关图幅尺寸、规格等标准要求，甚至达到了当代水准。

Another breakthrough of buildings in the Ming and Qing dynasties is establishment and improvement of architectural graphing system. The map format and

other specif i cations even meet the modern standards.例如清工部《工程做法则例》中采用正投影画法，描绘各式木构架的横剖面图，能够清晰反映建筑侧立面和内部结构，并注明比例尺度。通过条例规程与范例相结合的方法，逐款对照，能够为建筑施工操作提供标准化保障，彰显了传统建筑营造技术的几何化、秩序化特征和标准审美。

For example, the Codes for Architecture Construction by the Ministry of Works in the Qing Dynasty adopted orthographic projection graphing methods to depict the horizontal section plans of various wooden structures, which could clearly show the side elevation and internal structure of a building, whilst a proportional scale was marked. With a combination of rules and examples, the architecture construction was guaranteed with standards, which reflected the geometrical and regularized features and standard aesthetics of traditional architecture construction techniques.

结 语

Conclusion

无论是质朴大气的秦汉建筑，气势恢宏的唐宋建筑，还是博采众长的明清建筑，无一例外都是在建筑标准体系不断突破和完善的助推下，得到了长足的发展。在这一视角下，一部中国古典建筑史也是中国标准化史的一段精彩缩影和完美诠释。

Driven by the continuous development and improvement of the architectural standard system, the simple and grand architectures in the Qin and Han Dynasties,the magnificent architectures in the Tang and Song Dynasties and the architectures in the Ming and Qing Dynasties absorbing the essences of others,they all had obtained a well development. From this prospective, the Chinese classical architectural history is also a brilliant epitome and perfect explanation of the Chinese standardization history.