中国高校英语使用者典型石化现象评析

陈 胜

(广东外语外贸大学南国商学院 英文学院， 广东 广州 510545)

中国高校英语使用者典型石化现象评析

陈 胜

(广东外语外贸大学南国商学院 英文学院， 广东 广州 510545)

我国对英语的错误分析多以英语学习者为研究对象，极少涉及高校英语使用者。前者的失误和错误五花八门，影响力小，如出现在练习中；后者的失误和错误较少，但有些错误石化严重，规律性强，影响力大。高校英语使用者的典型石化现象可分为词汇错误、语法错误、语音错误以及语用和文化错误。他们的错误往往是在真实的交际环境中产生的，因此，有必要正本清源，以免谬种流传。

错误分析；石化现象；英语使用者；中国高校

语言研究可以是理性的，也可以是感性的。理性的语言研究注重哲理辨析和逻辑推理；感性的语言研究则偏重经验判断和数据分析。Olson就认为：“语言即当下经验”。[1]本文的研究属于后者，准确地说就是基于经验判断的。笔者从事英语教学逾四十年，作为硕士生导师和教育部硕士论文评审专家，主要从事英语类硕士研究生和本科生教学，同时也参与了各种听课活动，期间发现中国高校的部分英语使用者(主要指即将毕业的英语类硕士研究生和英语教师)在真实的交际环境中(包括课堂教学、讲课比赛、论文写作和答辩、应聘面试、汉英翻译)所发生的一些语言错误。与英语学习者不同，英语使用者(特别是英语教师)的错误往往少有人发现或发现后无人指出，因此有必要将这些常见错误归纳评析。

一、错误与石化现象

一般将语言的误用分为两种：一种是失误(mistake)或(failure)，口语中出现的则称为口误(a slip of the tongue)，因疏忽大意而偶尔发生，往往可由失误者自我察觉并矫正；另一种是错误(error)，被语言使用者误认为是正确的用法而反复使用，形成习惯性、顽固性的错误，甚至经提示后仍难以察觉，甚至察觉后还一犯再犯。Selinker称之为“石化现象”。[2]这种产生于中国校园英语使用者的“错误”或“石化现象”正是本文所关注的。

二、石化现象评析

(一)词汇错误

1.“使”和“让”的译法。

例1：节日可以使 / 让我们了解我们的历史和文化。

？Festivals can make / let us understand our history and culture.

√ Festivals can help us understand our history and culture.

点评：make强调比较强烈的因果关系，有时甚至有“迫使”之意；let则多用于祈使句。而汉语中的“使”有时却并非都是那么强烈，有时有“促使”、“有助于”的含义，因此用help是首选，亦可采用enable sb. to do sth.等句型。基于COCA美国当代英语语料库的统计表明，help us understand频次为563；而make us understand的频次仅为5，且都带有较为强烈的因果关系或迫使的意味。该统计还表明，let us understand的频次为仅为19，其中15例为祈使句。

2.“首先”和“最后”的译法

例2：首先，向各位在座的尊敬的教授表示衷心的感谢。

×At first, I’d like to express my sincere gratitude to the distinguished professors present.

√ First, I’d like to express my sincere gratitude to the distinguished professors present.

点评：表示“首先”或“开头”，可以用first, first of all, firstly, in the first place, in the beginning, to begin with等。注意：用了first后面可以用second, third等或者secondly, thirdly等，但也可以没有second或secondly等；用了firstly后面必须用secondly等。而At first是指“起初(但后来……)”，例：At first he was a little shy in class, but now he acts more natural.

例3：最后，作者分析了五类中国文化负载词的特点。

×At last, the author analyzes the characteristics of the five types of Chinese culture-loaded words.

√ Last / Finally, the author analyzes the characteristics of the five types of Chinese culture-loaded words.

点评：表示“最后”可用last, finally, in the end, lastly等。而at last是指“(经过一番周折或一段等待、耽搁、期盼之后)终于”，有较强烈的主观情绪，例：After a long winter, spring is here at last.3．介词

例4：总共有240例肺结核的报道，其中60例(25%)是在囚犯身上发生的。

×A total of 240 TB cases were reported, among which 60 (25%) were in prisoners.

√ A total of 240 TB cases were reported, of which 60 (25%) were in prisoners.

点评：表示“多少人或物其中有多少(比例)或其中一个怎么样”不能用among，而要用of，其道理与one of us和three of them是相通的。以下例句可参考： He is the tallest in the class. / He is the tallest of the students. / Divide the money among the six of us. / There is a lot of discontent among the workers.

例5：2012年至2014年间，逮捕的人里黑人占了83%。

×Between 2012 to 2014, blacks accounted for 83% of the arrests.

√ Between 2012 and 2014, blacks accounted for 83% of the arrests.

√ From 2012 to 2014, blacks accounted for 83% of the arrests.

点评：注意between…and 和from...to…的搭配。

例6：第一章是对中国英语教学的一个简介。

×Chapter One is an introduction of English teaching in China.

√ Chapter One is an introduction to English teaching in China.

点评：introduction to 一般是指对某人、某物、某事的介绍，而introduction of sth. into a certain place or area 一般是指将某物引进到某地或某领域，例：Raleigh was responsible for the introduction of tobacco smoking into England. / As a case study, the introduction of programmable logic devices (PLD’s) into the digital design curriculum at the University of California, Santa Barbara, is presented. 此外，英美大学等机构的简介，一般没有A Brief Introduction to XXX University这个说法，而是采用About XXX University或University Profile(不用大学名，因为简介就在该校的网页上)。

(二)语法错误

1.“无论是”与“无论是……还是……”

例7：无论你是中国人还是外国人，都应该遵守规则。

×Now matter you are a foreigner or a Chinese, you should follow the rule.

√ Whether you are a foreigner or a Chinese, you should follow the rule.

点评：涉及到“无论”这个词，汉语中有两个表达：“无论是”和“无论是……还是……”，英语中相应的表达也迥然不同。“无论是”的表达是now matter + who / what / where / when / how / which + 主语 + 谓语；“无论是……还是……”的表达是whether…or…， 其强调式是no matter whether…or…。

2.“不……也不……”

例8：他解释得既不清楚，也不准确。

×He did not explain it clearly and correctly.

√ He did not explain it clearly or correctly.

√ He explained it neither clearly nor correctly.

点评：这个问题涉及到全部否定和部分否定。Not 与and连用表示部分否定，He didn’t explain it clearly and correctly. 一般不会这么说，如果硬要解释的话，其意为“他解释得要么不清楚，要么不正确。”全部否定应该用not…or…，no…or…或者neither…nor。

3.这些动词后要不要介词？

例9：我缺乏经验。

×I lack of experience.

√ I lack experience.

√ I’m lacking in experience.

点评：lack 是及物动词，后面跟宾语时不需要介词。由于lack 做名词时多与of连用，所以会使人误以为lack 作动词也要用of。做名词的正确用法：My lack of experience led to the failure. 以下及物动词的用法与此类似。

×I wish to emphasize on the seriousness of these proposals.

√ I wish to emphasize the seriousness of these proposals.

√ The administration may put more emphasis on spurring economic growth.

×You can contact with us by e-mail.

√ You can contact us by e-mail.

√ Please keep in contact with us by e-mail.

×The angry crowds may influence on the government.

√ The angry crowds may influence the government.

√ Van Gogh had a major influence on the development of modern painting.

√ Painters in the United States have begun to exert great worldwide influence over art.

4. 词性问题：

——副词还是连词？

例10： 他似乎并不想去，另外他的衣服也不够好。

× He seemed to have no desire to go there, besides, his clothes were not good enough.

√ He seemed to have no desire to go there; besides, his clothes were not good enough.

√ He seemed to have no desire to go there. Besides, his clothes were not good enough.

√ He seemed to have no desire to go there, and besides, his clothes were not good enough.

点评：Besides不是连词，是副词，不能连接两个对等的结构，否则就成了“粘连句”(run-on sentence)。更正的方法有一个口诀“分号+小写，句号+大写，逗号+and / but”。除了简单句，英语句子结构一般有两种：并列、主从。并列结构必须用三个并列连词中的一个(and, but, or)连接两个并列的成分。主从结构可分为两种，一种是“主句+从句”或“从句+主句”，另一种是“谓语+非谓语”或“非谓语+谓语”。例：“她排着队焦急地等公汽。”可译为She stood in the queue and waited for the bus anxiously. (并列)，或She waited for the bus anxiously after she stood in the queue. (主句+从句)，或She stood in the queue, waiting for the bus anxiously. (谓语+非谓语)以下例句与此类似。

×The price is too high, moreover, the house isn’t in a suitable position. (moreover是副词)

√ The price is too high; moreover, the house isn’t in a suitable position. (分号+小写)

√ The price is too high. Moreover, the house isn’t in a suitable position. (句号+大写)

√ The price is too high, and moreover, the house isn’t in a suitable position. (逗号+and)

×She said it was so, however, she was mistaken. (however是副词)

√ She said it was so; however, she was mistaken. (分号+小写)

√ She said it was so. However, she was mistaken. (句号+大写)

√ She said it was so, but she was mistaken. (逗号+but)

(nevertheless 的词性和用法与however同)

×On the one hand you have accepted her presents, on the other (hand) you are rude to the whole family. (on the other hand不是并列连词)

√ On the one hand you have accepted her presents; on the other (hand) you are rude to the whole family. (分号+小写)

√ On the one hand you have accepted her presents. On the other (hand) you are rude to the whole family. (句号+大写)

√ On the one hand you have accepted her presents, but on the other (hand) you are rude to the whole family. (逗号+but)

×He didn’t study hard, thus failed the test. (thus是副词)

√ He didn’t study hard, and thus failed the test. (逗号+and)

×They chatted for a while, then they went to work. (then是副词)

√ They chatted for a while and then went to work. (逗号+and)

——介词还是连词？

例11：随着中国经济的快速发展，……

×As the rapid development of China’s economy, ……(此处as 不是介词)

√ With the rapid development of China’s economy, ……(with+名词)

√ As China’s economy is developing rapidly, ……(as 是从属连词，可引导从句)

——副词还是动词？

×You maybe right. (maybe是副词，不是动词)

√ You may be right. (may是情态动词)

√ Maybe you are right. (maybe是副词)

5. 句型问题

例12：这是一幅伦敦塔桥的照片，用英语怎么说？

×This is a photo of London Tower Bridge. How to say in English?

√ This is a photo of London Tower Bridge. How do you say it in English?

点评： how to do 不是一个独立存在的问句，只能用作一个句子中的一个成分，如主语、宾语等。此外，say是及物动词，后面必须接宾语。“用英语怎么说？”类似的英语表达方式还有：Can you say it in English? / Please say it in English. / Put it into English, please. / What is the English equivalent of 伦敦塔桥?

例13：他建议她早点去机场。

×He suggested her to leave early for the airport.

√ He suggested (that) she (should) leave early for the airport.

√ He suggested (her) leaving early for the airport.

点评：suggest 后面可接两种句型：suggest doing sth. 和suggest+宾语从句。注意：宾语从句中的动词需用虚拟语气形式“(should) do”，现代英语中虚拟语气的should一般都会省去。表示“建议”的另外两个词advise和recommend除了可以用以上连个句型外，还可以用不定式做宾语补足语：advise / recommend sb. to do sth.

(三)语音错误

1.重读音节错误。以下单词正确的重读音节用下划线标出，括号中是可能会导致前面的词误读的词，也用下划线标出重读音节。ignorant, ignorance (ignore); rhetoric (rhetorical); diligent, diligence (delicious); origin (original), industry (industrial, industrious); influence (influential); narrative (narrate, narrator, narration) ; contribute (contribution); attribute (attributive, attribution); enthusiasm (enthusiastic); supervisor (supervision); graduate (graduation); literature。

复合词的读音一般只有一个重音，位于第一个音节：compound, background, bookshop, bathroom, blackboard, homework, workshop, textbook, newspaper。

written['writn]而不是['wraitn]; southern['sn]而不是['san]

(四)语用和文化错误

1.称谓问题。错误：Good morning, teacher.

点评：汉语中，几乎任何头衔、职务或职业都可用作称呼语，可带姓(名)，也可不带姓(名)，如(张)股长、(李)木匠、(王)护士。在英语国家，一般性职务和职业都不能作为称呼语；头衔则分为社会称谓(social titles)和职务(学术)头衔(professional titles)，前者主要有Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss，后者主要有President, Chairman, Governor, Senator, Dean, Dr., Professor。如果老师不是博士或教授，学生可说Good morning, Mr. / Mrs. / Ms. / Miss Smith.，如果关系比较密切，也可直呼其名，如Good morning, John / Mary. 中学生也可说Good morning, sir / madam.

2.用yes还是no？回答反义疑问句时要根据实际情况，而不是根据提问的方式回答。

现在设定：你读过这本书。那么回答应该是：

You have read the book, haven’t you? ——Yes, I have.

You haven’t read the book, have you? ——Yes, I have.

现在设定：你没有读过这本书。那么回答应该是：

You have read the book, haven’t you? ——No, I haven’t.

You haven’t read the book, have you? ——No, I haven’t.

3. 关于“中学”和“公路”。不少英语使用者对“中学”和“公路”的英语表达方式及其含义不甚了了。

根据维基百科全书(http://www.wikipedia.org)等资料，英国的中学极少分为初中和高中，一般称为XXX Secondary School。美国的中学有六年一贯制的(grade 7-12)，一般称为XXX Junior-Senior High School，也有个别六年一贯制的称为XXX High School(如Gretchen Whitney High School)；有的只有初中的称为XXX Junior High School,多为两年制(grade 7-8)，也有少数三年制的(grade 7-9)；有的只有高中的称XXX High (School)或XXX Senior High School，多为四年制(grade 9-12)。中国六年一贯制的称为XXX Middle School，初中称为XXX Junior Middle School，高中称为XXX Senior Middle School。

Highway 是公路，包括高速公路但不是专指高速公路。美国和加拿大的高速公路说法很多，freeway是免费的，expressway有免费也有收费的，parkway多指风景优美的或通往风景区的高速公路；英国和爱尔兰的高速公路一般称为motorway；中国的高速公路多称为expressway。

三、错误之原因

(一)语言负迁徙(negative language transfer) 语言负迁徙是指外语学习者或使用者把母语的语言规律带入外语使用中而引起的，属于语际错误(interlingual error)。[3]201-203如例1、例8、例10以及语用和文化错误。(例10同时具备语内错误的特点。)

(二)过度泛化(overgeneralization) 过度泛化指的是将学过的目的语的某些规律误用到其它方面的现象，是一种语内错误 (intralingual error)。Brown指出，语内迁移是第二语言学习中的一个主要的负面因素。[3]201-203如例2～7、例9～13。

(三)误传误导 有些错误在中国英语教师中存在已久，导致贻误学生，代代相传。

关于如何处理“流利”(fluency)与“准确”(accuracy)的关系，众多学者已开展了广泛、深入的讨论。笔者认为，这一讨论不可脱离具体情况。对于即将毕业的英语类硕士研究生和英语教师这一类中高级英语使用者，对“准确” 应更加苛求。他们的错误不同于初学者的错误，因为这种错误往往会堂而皇之地当做一种正确的用法灌输给初学者，以讹传讹。此外，对于口语，应更注重“流利”，允许出现一定的“失误”，但“错误”仍是不可容忍的。以上错误虽发生在高校某些英语使用者身上，初级英语使用者和学习者也应引以为鉴。

[1]Olson, C. “Proprioception” in Donald Allen & Warren Tallman, eds., The Poetics of the New American Poetry[M]. New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1973:182．

[2]Selinker, L. Interlanguage, International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching[M]. London: Longman, 1972:209-231.

[3]Brown, H.D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching[M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.1994.

责任编辑 张吉兵

2017-03-28

10.3969/j.issn.1003-8078.2017.04.21

陈胜(1954-)，男，湖北荆州人，广东外语外贸大学南国商学院英文学院教授，硕士生导师。

H319.3

A

1003-8078(2017)04-0082-05