《中国科学技术史·语言与逻辑》选译(四)
2022-04-27何莫邪译注/陈国华卢培培
何莫邪 译注/陈国华 卢培培
【译者言】语言与逻辑之间有着十分密切的关系,然而似乎各种语言里都有一些不符合逻辑的表达式。中文里大家习以为常的一个例子就是“在他没……之前我就……”。这一期英文原文里的All that glitters is not gold 也是如此。Google Translate译成“闪光的不是金子”,DeepL译成“金玉其外败絮其中”,显然都不对,可见这两个机器翻译软件里都没有配备英汉对应的成语库。逻辑学家常以这句英文成语为例,说英语的否定句有时如何不合逻辑;文法学家也常以这句话为例,说明英文的否定范围(scope of negation)可以如何违反常规。事实上,这一不合逻辑的否定方式不过是偶然因素导致的一个例外。
据《牛津英语成语词典》(Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs, 3rd ed. p. 316)和英文短语网站The Phrase Finder (https://www.phrases.org.uk/index.html),这句话的现存最早说法是一句拉丁文成语,出现于13世纪后期,有[1]和[2]两种形式:
[1] Non omne quod nitet aurum est.
= Not all that glitters is gold.
并非所有金光闪闪之物皆为黄金。
[2] Non teneas aurum totum quod splendet ut aurum.
= Do not take everything for gold, which shines like gold.
切勿以为所有金光闪闪之物都是黄金。
以上两种说法逻辑上都毫无问题。
大约1300年,法文里出现了下面的说法:
[3] Que tout n’est pas or c’on voit luire.
= That one sees shining is not all gold.
金光闪闪者,并非皆黄金。
法文的这一说法在逻辑上也没有问题。
14世纪末,英文里有了与拉丁文成语类似说法。与[1]相似的说法出现在乔叟约于1374—1385年写的长诗《传言之屋》(House of Fame)里:
[4] Hyt is not al golde that glareth.
= It is not all gold that glareth.
= That which glares is not all gold.
金光闪闪者,并非皆黄金。
与[2]相似的说法出现在英文版《圣经》的第1位译者约翰·威克里夫(John Wycliffe)约于1380年写的一篇布道词里:
[5] Men shulden not holde al gold þat shyneþ as gold.
= Men should not take all that shines like gold for gold.
人们不应将所有金光闪闪之物当成黄金。
这两种说法在逻辑上也都没有毛病。
乔叟之后又有至少3位英国文人有过类似说法。一位是诗僧约翰·利德盖特(John Lydgate),他有下面[6]和[7]两种说法,[6]见于《佃户与鸟》(Chorle and Byrde),[7]见于《论人间事物之可变》(On the Mutability of Human Affairs),二者都创作于约1430年:
[6] All is not gold that shewyth goldishe hewe.
= All that shows golden hue is not gold
显得金黄之物都不是黄金。
[7] All is not golde that outward shewith bright.
外表閃亮者都不是黄金。
另一位是翻译家阿瑟·戈尔丁(Arthur Golding),此人1577年翻译了著名宗教改革家约翰·加尔文(Jean Calvin)用法文写的《论〈以弗所书〉布道词》(Sermons on The Epistle to the Ephesians),里面说:
[8] But al is not gold that glistereth.
闪闪发光之物都不是黄金。
第3位是埃德蒙·斯宾塞(Edmund Spenser),其1590年出版的长诗《仙后》(The Faerie Queene)第2卷中有这样两行:
[9] Yet gold all is not, that doth golden seem.
= Yet that doth seem golden is not all gold.
然而外显金黄者并非皆黄金。
以上4种说法,除[8]以外,逻辑上也没有问题。
之后就是莎士比亚约于1596年创作的《威尼斯商人》里那句流传至今的名言。第2幕第7场里,轮到摩洛哥王子选匣子,决定他能否娶鲍霞为妃。他选中的是金匣子,打开一看,里面的纸条上写着:
[10] All that glisters is not gold;
Often have you heard that told.
Many a man his life hath sold
But my outside to behold.
所有的发光物并非黄金;
这句话您肯定熟知于心。
许多人葬送了宝贵性命,
仅因为我外表亮瞎眼睛。
莎士比亚的[10]明显直接抄自戈尔丁的[8],只不过语序略有调整,格律也由前轻后重的抑扬格变成了前重后轻的扬抑格。这两句话按照字面意思分析都经不起推敲:既然“闪闪发光之物都不是黄金”或“所有的发光物并非黄金”,那么黄金是一种发光物,照理也不是黄金。不过莎剧读者或观众从不这样推敲,因为大家知道,诗人享有一种诗学特许(poetic license),即“诗人假设自己享有一种权利,允许他改变或颠倒标准句法,或背离常见修辞或发音,以使其所作之诗符合诗歌的格律或声调要求。”1明白了这一点,人们会把这行诗解读为“并非所有发光物都是黄金”(Not all that glisters is gold)。莎士比亚的这一诗行抑扬顿挫,末尾突出“并非黄金”,比符合逻辑的其他说法更受欢迎。结果是诗学碾压逻辑。
Many exotic2 logical features have been claimed for3 the Chinese language throughout the ages. For example, it has been claimed that negation somehow does not have its full logical force in Chinese. In fact it turns out that such illogicalities as cumulative negation4 and such phrases as “all that glitters is not gold” are in fact quite alien to Chinese grammar, and if we are to compare logicality with respect to negation, then it turns out that Chinese is very considerably more logically transparent and rigid than ancient Greek (c, 1). It has been claimed that Chinese is very strange in lacking proper word classes, but Shakespearean English turns out to be very close indeed in its treatment of word classes to Classical Chinese (compare “but me no buts5”), and in any case there is a sound basis for distinguishing the functional properties of ancient Chinese words, not to speak of modern ones. They often even have morphological word class characteristics (c, 4). The stylistic differences in explicitness in Greek versus implicitness in ancient Chinese are real enough, but they are only matters of degree, and it must be pointed out that Greek can be elliptic in many places where Classical Chinese cannot (c, 5). I find that there are indeed many semantic/logical configurations that are perfectly possible but cannot be represented in Classical Chinese. But it turns out that these do not generally seem to be essential for the articulation of scientific thought. The syntax of Classical Chinese turns out to be rich enough to express the thought of Plato, though it is poor enough to necessitate considerable syntactic and logical revamping (c, 6).
The history of logical concepts in China has, in recent years, received much more attention than the grammatical and linguistic problems introduced6 so far, and this7 area remains controversial. A. C. Graham8 remarked that “it is perhaps inevitable that in the no-man’s-land on the common borders of linguistics, philosophy, and sinology, among those from whom one looks for stimulating new approaches9 (Rosemont10, Hansen11, Hall12) most generalisations about the Chinese language start from totally obsolete assumptions”. Graham goes on to give an example: “To speak of Chinese sentences as ‘strings of names’ is to revert to the grammatical knowledge of the ancient Chinese themselves (and not quite catching up with. Names and Objects).13” Graham argues: “But a claim that, for example, there are no sentences in English, offered without even an alternative account of the grammatical differences between the so-called ‘sentence’ and the nominalised clause, would be meaningless14; why is the claim supposed to be meaningful if the language is Chinese?”
古往今來,有许多带有异国特质的逻辑特征被说成是中文特有的。例如,有人声称,不知为何否定式在中文里没有充分的逻辑效力。实际情况却是,像多重否定式这种不合逻辑的现象和All that glitters is not gold(直译是“所有发光物并非黄金”)之类的语句在中文文法里相当异类;如果我们比较否定方面的逻辑性,那么事实证明,中文在逻辑上要比古希腊文透明和严谨得多(见c, 1)。有人声称,中文非常奇怪,缺乏正儿八经的词类,但事实证明,莎士比亚英语在对词类的处理上与古典中文非常接近(比较but me no buts),而且不管怎样,区分古代中文词功能属性的做法是有坚实基础的,更不用说现代中文词了。中文词常常甚至有形态学上的词类特征(c, 4)。希腊文的显性和古代中文的隐性在文体上确有差异,但这只是个程度问题,而且必须指出,希腊文在很多地方可以省略,而古典中文却不可以(c, 5)。我发现,确实有很多完全可能的语义/逻辑配置在古典中文中无法表示出来。但事实证明,一般来说,这些配置对科学思想的清晰表达似乎并非至关重要。经证明,古典中文的句法既十分丰富,足以表达柏拉图的思想;又比较贫乏,须经过相当可观的句法和逻辑改造,才堪当此任(c,6)。
近年来中国逻辑概念史受到的关注比迄今为止中文文法和语言问题受到的关注多得多,而且逻辑概念史领域仍存在争议。葛瑞汉曾说:“在语言学、哲学和汉学共同边界上的无人区,当你从罗思文、陈汉生、郝大维等人那里寻找具有启发性的新思路时,得到的有关中文的一般性论断大都基于完全过时的假定”,这也是在所难免的。葛瑞汉接着举了一个例子:“把中文句子说成 ‘一串串名称’是倒退到古代中国人自己的文法认知上(而且尚未完全跟上)。”葛瑞汉说:“举例来说,有一种说法认为,英文没有哪个句子不可以拿来说明(甚至没有其他办法说明)所谓‘句子’及其名词化之间有何文法差异。这种说法毫无意义。如果中文同样是这种语言,这一说法又有什么意义呢?”
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