宋韵:登峰造极的两宋文明(五)
2021-07-29徐吉军
徐吉军
七是城市文明
在宋代,中国古代的城市发生了一个划时代的变化,呈现出与过去不同的时代特色,这就是伊懋可等西方学者所称的“城市革命”。“这个革命的鲜明特点”是:(1)放松了每县一市、市须设在县城的限制;(2)官市组织衰替,终至瓦解;(3)坊市分隔制度消灭,而代之以“自由得多的街道规划,可以在城内或四郊各处进行买卖交易”;(4)有的城市在迅速扩大,城外商业郊区蓬勃发展;(5)出现具有重要经济职能的“大批中小市镇”。(施坚雅主编:《中华帝国晚期的城市》,叶光庭等人合译,中华书局2000年,第24页)与前代相比,宋代城市面貌确实发生了很大的变化,在许多方面达到很高的发展水平。具体表现为: 城市化程度明显提高,在我国古代处于一个空前绝后的制高点上,不仅远超汉唐,且为明清所不及。据中国台湾学者赵冈、陈钟毅的研究,宋代是我国历史上城市人口比例最高的一个朝代,尤其是南宋,城市人口比例从北宋的20.1%上升到22.4%。日本学者斯波义信通过对福建汀州、庆元府鄞县、江东歙县、两浙西路镇江府等实例研究,认为“州治所在的县大体上有百分之二十左右的人集中在城市里”,且尚不包括镇以下的坊廓户和短工、游民等。著名宋史学家漆侠等估计,北宋时期全国城市人口的比重约占全国总人口的12%,南宋城市人口比重高达13%—14%。城市规模、人口的扩大和增加,标志着近代城市雏形已经出现。朱瑞熙在其论著《宋代社会研究》中根据《元丰九域志》统计,北宋全境拥有10万户以上的城市约有40多个,到宋徽宗崇宁年间上升到50多个,数量超过汉唐数倍。知名的有北京(今河北大名县)、西京(今洛阳)、成都、苏州、杭州、江宁(今南京)、福州、广州、鄂州(今武昌)等地区性经济中心城市,遍及全国。还有不计其数的大大小小超过20万常住人口的中等城市。
北宋都城东京(今河南开封)、南宋都城临安(今浙江杭州)和唐代长安(今陕西西安),被西方汉学界并称为中国古代三大国际性的大都城,是当时世界上人口最多、经济最繁华的大都市。北宋首都东京和南宋首都临安,都是人口超过百万的国际大都会,多的时候更是有150万左右的城市常住人口。南宋臨安城周边还形成了15个赤镇(指唐、宋、元各代京都所治的镇),类似于环绕都城的卫星城镇。
由于宋代城市的快速发展、高度发展,城市化过程中出现了交通拥挤、饮水困难、生态失衡、卫生不良、环境恶化、火灾频频、疾疫肆虐等诸多问题。以房价为例,宋代城市的房价很高,巅峰时期的开封和临安,土地极其紧张,寸土寸金,住宅紧缺,一房难求,可以说是世界第一。市场经济虽然非常活跃,但市井亦随之产生了诸多乱象,造成市场的无序化状态,如市场中一些奸商和有“拦街虎”“九条龙”之类绰号的无赖、破落户,唯利是图,以次充好,乃至公然造假、欺行霸市以及抢掠现象迭出,甚至关乎人命的医药也不能幸免。街市上各种骗局层出不穷,被称为“白日贼”的骗徒,在买卖货物过程中采取诸多手法行骗。
城市中人口快速膨胀、庞大而又构成复杂,带来多样化的生存方式。这些问题,都促使宋代统治者采取措施,通过建立并完善城市消防体制,加强城市垃圾的处理、疫病的防治等公共事务管理,建立社会救济制度的办法,以积极的姿态应对挑战,由此促成了我国古代城市管理制度的重大创新。按美国著名汉学家施坚雅主编《中华帝国晚期的城市》里的话来说:“大城市变得更大了,城市人口大大增长了,城市体系的结合更紧密了;但在所有这些变化中,最重大的变化却是原为都邑的中心地的比例大为减少了。城市发展的这一特点,是一场不断推进着的革命的信号,这场革命是整个社会的管理方式上的革命。”特别是厢坊制的确立,使各项管理职能得以加强。在中央工部所属都水监下,设置了街道司、河渠司、沟河司等机构,与各级地方官府共同管理着所在城市的水陆交通。以北宋东京城的政府管理为例,统治者为加强东京城公共事务的管理,设置三条系统:一是作为东京城管理核心机构的开封府行政系统;二是设有厢典、书手、街子、行官等职位的厢坊系统,主管检验救火、督察盗贼等行政事物,并负责把每个厢坊的居民组织起来,共同参与城市管理;三是建立军巡制与军巡铺(全世界最早也是我国最早的专职消防队)的军事系统,负责掌管巡逻和追捕盗贼等职责,并与各级机构相配合加入到城市管理之中。东京城这种全方位、多层次的城市立体管理机构的设置,具体体现在对城市规划、城市交通、公用设施、土地使用、居民饮水、环境卫生、消防安全以及街道、沟渠的维护与管理上,使其焕发出新的生机与活力,在某些方面体现出了现代城市管理的特点,从而在中国城市发展史上创造了不小的奇迹,至今仍闪烁着独特的光芒。以城市交通为例,东京、临安作为王朝的政治中心,驿路和运河通道通向其他各地,形成一个严密的、畅通的水陆交通网。在住宅上,统治者为了缓解住房压力,维护社会安定,推出廉租房制度。廉租房不仅价格低廉,在灾荒时还予以部分减免。在消防上,政府对防火高度重视,管理制度较有成效,为后世的城市消防制度开创了先例。其时东京、临安等城市建立了非常完备的防火组织和专门的消防队,时称“潜火队”,是世界上最早的一支城市专业消防队,组织严密,设备齐全,特别是南宋中叶以后临安的消防组织和措施,“是当时世界上所有城市最完善的,已与近代城市的消防组织相类似”。据统计,临安共有防隅军兵二十队,潜火军兵七队,总人数达到了5100人。同法国巴黎于1699年建立的第一个消防队相比,要早490余年。唧筒(水泵)的发明和使用具有划时代的贡献,这种运用柱塞式泵浦原理而研制的灭火器具,可以说是我国最早出现的消防泵浦。饮用水的供应和保护,生活垃圾的处理等,也比过去有了较大的进步。
随着城市中社会贫富分化的加剧,促使统治者越来越重视对贫困市民的救助(在特定情况下也包括普通市民、流动人员等诸多社会群体),探索有别于乡村的城市救助体制。以官方为主导、以社会救济和社会保障为主要内容的社会事业有了很大的发展,开始朝建立社会保障体系的方向发展。其中面向贫民和穷民的社会救济事业发达,救济范围空前广泛,取得了前所未有的突出成就。如建立了较为完备的仓储备荒体系,制定了较为完善的赈灾救荒法规,创立了功能较为齐备的济贫恤穷设施,具有制度化、系统化、规范化的特点。
在这一时期,中国历史上第一次出现了城市平民阶层,呈现出中国古代社会前所未有的时代开放性。入宋以后,随着城市坊市分离制度的破坏,城市商品经济的发展和财富的增长,商品意识也在迅速地向社会生活的各个角落渗透,知识产品已经商品化,并在一定范围内建立了知识产权保护制度。城市居民的生活已颇为自由、放纵、奢华,正是城市居民这种颇为自由、奢华、享乐的生活风气和城市社会生活娱乐区的需求,使宋代带有明显消费性和商品化色彩的城市文化娱乐活动日益兴盛起来,成为一种普遍的文化存在。市民阶层的出现,世俗文化与世俗经济的形成与繁荣,意味着中国“市民社会”已具雏形,开启了中国社会的平民化进程。市民的社会观念和生活消费风尚更是领先于全国。中国传统的“农本工商末”观点,在这里得到了彻底的否定,人们对工商业的社会价值给予了充分的肯定,从而使社会上出现了全民皆商的新风尚。传统的“贵义贱利”的价值观念已经荡然无存。当时人们生活中的婚姻、丧葬、生育、科举、行医等,皆以钱为中心。讲求效率和速度,现代意义上的“快餐店”、旅游图、旅游纪念品,在南宋临安随处可见。简体字已经在城市中开始应用。与此同时,市民也追求自身的物质和精神享受。而此时,一种新的组织形式大量涌现,那就是行、作等的产生。行即市场的组织,作是手工业作坊的组织。这是一种官商结合的行会组织,为官府对城市进行有效管理的一种手段。正如杨宽《中国古代都城制度史研究》一书所描述的,“由于社会经济的发展,全国性市场的形成,各种行业的商人联合组成‘行或‘市的成长, 使得都城内外,水上交通要道上新的日用商品的‘行或‘市兴起,在这个基础上又逐渐发展成新的‘街市,于是‘街市就代替了过去封闭式的‘市。随着‘街市的发展和坊巷中商业交易的开展,逐渐形成大街小巷的交通网,于是大街小巷的结构就代替过去‘街坊的结构”。(上海古籍出版社1993年版,第201页)
此外,市民文化蓬勃发展。带有明显消费性和商品化色彩的城市文化娱乐活动日益兴盛起来,成为一种普遍的文化存在。各大城市中,出现了众多独立的供人们娱乐消费的综合型游艺场所。据《东京梦华录》卷二《东角楼街卷》载,北宋京城汴京瓦子遍布,有勾栏50余座。南宋首都临安城内外的瓦舍多达23处,其中仅北瓦就有勾栏13座。瓦舍里汇集了丰富多彩的娱乐活动和伎艺表演,尤其是在节庆期间,更是无比繁盛,演出不受时间的限制和气候的影响,“不以风雨寒暑,白昼通夜,骈阗如此”。琴棋书画等高雅艺术也是枝繁叶茂,风格多样,并越来越呈现出专业化的趋势。话本、杂剧和流行曲谱的增多,文学社团的形成,艺术品交易市场的出现,这些都不断丰富着城市生活的内涵。特别是五花八门的休闲活动,成为吸引城市居民和外地来客的重要因素,有力地促进了市民文化的发展。诚如法国著名汉学家谢和耐《中国社会史》所说,中国“11—13世纪的人要比唐代、六朝或汉代的人更频繁和更乐于迁徙……农村生活的艰难、城市小业主的数目之巨和名目繁多、城市的吸引力、财富和娱乐中心等,这一切都引发了流民和贫苦农民涌向大城镇的浪潮”。
在過去,人们往往将市民那种“颇为自由、放纵,过着享乐的日子”,视为奢侈之举。其实,这是一种片面的、带有封建落后观念的旧见解,与时代格格不入,因为他们忽视了市民高度卓越的创业活动和创业精神,无法理解生产与消费两者之间的密切关系。城中酒楼茶馆等店铺、市场的热闹喧哗,勾栏瓦子、书肆、会社、学校、寺观等的繁多,正是显示了城市经济、文化的蓬勃活力,引导了社会经济和文化的竞争性、开放性,显示出超越旧传统的新时代的景况。
总之,与前代相比,宋代城市文明在许多方面达到很高的发展水平。对此,海内外一些史学家认为中国古代城市在宋代已经背离了传统的格局而进入了真正的 “城市革命” 时期。日本学者宫崎市定在《东洋的文艺复兴与西洋的文艺复兴》一文中,则把宋代城市的发展比作“东方文艺复兴”。虽然对宋代城市的发展水平还不能给予过高的估计,但若从中国古代城市化的整个历史发展进程来看,宋代无疑是一个重要的转折时期。其后元、 明、 清三代的城市模式和格局,基本上都是在宋代城市模式的影响下发展起来的,由此亦可见宋代城市在中国古代城市发展史上的地位和影响。
(作者系浙江省社科院历史所所长。)
During the Song dynasty (960-1279), Chinese cities underwent unprecedented changes in what some Western scholars such as Mark Elvin described as a “urban revolution". Among the distinct features of this revolution are: (1) the relaxation of the restriction that only one officially controlled market could be allowed in every county capital; (2) the decline and eventual collapse of the official marketing organization; (3) the scrap of the Fang-Shi (walled ward) System, under which no marketplace could be freely organized; (4) the rapid expansion of urban centers as well as the booming development of commerce in suburban areas; and (5) the emergence of a large number of market towns with important economic functions.
Urbanization saw marked increased in the Song dynasty, unsurpassed by any Chinese dynasties before or after. It not only far outstripped its predecessors, even its successors failed to reach such a height. One study put the proportion of urban population in the Northern Song (960-1127) and Southern Song (1127-1279)at 20.1% and 22.4% respectively. Another deemed the figure to be roughly 20%, not taking account into some of the migrant workers and vagabonds. The estimates of a third study were lower, 12% for Northern Song and 13% for Southern Song , but they are still among the highest in Chinese history.
Growing urbanization and urban populations heralded the birth of modern cities. According to statistics, over 40 major urban and commercial centers, which increased to above 50 during the reign of the Huizong emperor (1082-1135), had a population of more than 100,000 households in Northern Song, including Xijing (present-day Luoyang), Chengdu, Suzhou, Hangzhou and Jiangning (present-day Nanjing), and numerous medium-sized cities with a population exceeding 200,000.
Together with the Tang (618-907) capital Changan (present-day Xian), Dongjing (present-day Kaifeng), capital of Northern Song, and Linan (present-day Hanagzhou), capital of Southern Song, are regarded as the three most metropolitan and prosperous cities of ancient China, the latter two regularly housing a population in excess of one million, and over 1.5 million sometimes. Around Linan, 15 satellite towns also popped up.
On the other hand, rapid development and urbanization also brought myriad problems, including traffic jams, shortage of fresh water, environmental degradation, inadequate sanitation, frequent fire outbreaks and spread of diseases. Housing prices in Kaifeng and Linan at their heyday were believed to be the worlds highest. While market was developed more than ever, irregularities and illegal activities were also spawned. For example, unscrupulous merchants and street rascals openly sold inferior, even fake, goods. They also bullied those who were trying to do a proper business.
These problems prompted the Song rulers to adopt a series of measures and improve the urban management. A comprehensive fire protection was established, urban waste management and treatment was strengthened, disease prevention mechanisms were installed and a social relief structure was put into place, among other administrative innovations. Or as the US sinologist G. William Skinner argued in his edited volume The City in Late Imperial China, “The great cities were greater, the urban population vastly enlarged, the integration of city systems much tighter; but perhaps the most significant change of all was the greatly reduced proportion of central places that were capitals. For this feature of urban development signaled an ongoing revolution in the manner in which the entire society was managed.”
Of particular significance is the establishment of the Xiang-Fang System, which replaced the previous Li-Fang System with free movement and mixed land use. Fang is generally a rectangularly residential quarter divided by a main road and branching street, and Xiang is the street linking dwelling units. Essentially, every Xiang-Fang is akin to a neighborhood community or a subdistrict in todays China. Specialized positions were set up in each Xiang-Fang for fire safety and guarding against thievery and burglary. Residents in each Xiang-Fang were also enlisted to help with urban management. From transportation to fresh water, from sanitation to public facilities, major cities of Song dynasty showed characteristics only found in modern urban management.
To alleviate housing pressures and strengthen social stability, Song rulers offered low-rent housing to residents, which could be further lowered or exempted if crop failures struck. In Linan, the Southern Song capital, the worlds earlier professional fire brigade was born. Indeed, in the latter years of the Southern Song, Linan boasted seven such professional brigades. In 1699, roughly five centuries later, the first professional fire brigade was formed in Paris.
Meanwhile, a consumption-oriented urban culture featuring a rich selection of entertainment options flourished. In Northern Song, Washe (also known as Washi or Wazi), a special area for public entertainment, appeared. According to Dongjing Menghua Lu, or The Eastern Capital: A Dream of Splendor, a book that recorded in detail the urban life of the Northern Song capital, Washe could be found in every part of the city, with over 50 Goulan, the theatres in the form of fenced-off rings. In Southern Song, the number grew further: as many as 23 washe were in the capital Linan, and in Beiwa (literally Northern Washe) alone, the largest one, there were 13 Goulan. Day and night, rain or shine, entertainment and performances would be on. Music, chess, calligraphy and painting—the so-called four arts of Chinese scholars—also flourished, and specialized markets for artworks appeared. Diversified entertainment, culture and leisure activities became strong magnets for urban residents and migrant populations, which further spurred the development of urban culture. As the French sinologist Jacques Gernet observed in A History of Chinese Civilization, “The men of the eleventh to thirteenth centuries travelled about more often and more willingly than those of the Tang, Six Dynasties, and Han periods. … the difficulties of rural life, the number and diversity of the small urban trades, and the attraction of the towns, centers of wealth and entertainment, caused a flow of vagabonds and impoverished peasants toward the big agglomerations.”
The social attitudes of urban residents and their consumption-centered lifestyles were not only far ahead of their rural peers but of their times. Merchant class was much respected, and preference for sons over daughters was upended. Urban residents had no qualms about pursuing material as well as spiritual pleasures. Efficiency and speed, hallmarks of a modern society, were much valued. Although scholars of latter dynasties derided it as debauch and depraved, they overlooked the dynamism, the entrepreneurship and the liberalized attitudes within the lifestyle, precisely because these values went against the traditions.
While Songs urban development should not be overestimated, successive dynasties all followed its city models and layout. All in all, urban civilization in Song dynasty reached quite a height in various aspects and the Japanese sinologist Miyazaki Ichisada called it “the renaissance in the Orient”.