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多巴胺检测方法研究进展

2018-03-12黄启同林小凤胡世荣祝杰记佟庆笑

关键词:纳米材料检出限选择性

黄启同,林小凤,胡世荣,祝杰记,佟庆笑*,

(1.汕头大学化学系,汕头 515063;2.漳州职业技术学院食品与生物工程系,漳州 363000;3.闽南师范大学化学与环境学院,漳州 363000)

作为儿茶酚胺类神经递质的一种,多巴胺(Dopamine,DA,3,4-二羟基-β-苯乙胺)在中枢神经、心血管、肾脏和内分泌系统中扮演着重要的角色[1-3].2000年诺贝尔医学奖获得者——Carlsson曾指出:DA不只是甲状腺素和去甲肾上腺素的前驱,而且还是脑内信息传递者[4].因此,多巴胺含量的大小影响着人们的思考、工作、运动等行为[5-6].人体血液中多巴胺的正常质量浓度0.2-0.4 μg·mL-1,人体血液中DA的质量浓度过低时将会引发许多疾病如精神分裂症、心脏衰竭、帕金森症、神经肌肉失调等[7-8].反之,体内DA含量增多时,会使人感到开心、兴奋,容易让人上瘾,喝酒、吸烟、吸毒等都可以促进DA的分泌,因此,酒鬼,烟民和瘾君子等一般都受DA的控制,与其体内的DA含量有关[9-10].除此之外,作为药物的一种,DA可以作用于交感神经系统,对其产生一些影响,如心率加快、排血量增加、血压升高和心肌收缩力增强等,因此,DA常常被用于治疗抑郁症、心肌梗死、肾功能衰竭、休克以及内毒素败血症等疾病[11-12].因此,DA的含量与一些疾病有着密切相关,高灵敏、简单地检测DA的浓度对于生理功能研究和临床疾病诊断具有重要应用价值.

随着生命科学、生物工程及药物工程的快速发展,对生物分子、药物小分子的快速、灵敏、准确检测成为现代生物学、医学、化学等领域的重要研究课题.由于DA含量的测定在临床应用和生理功能研究方面都具有重要的意义,截至目前,有许多的研究方法和手段为DA的检测做出了巨大的贡献.

1 荧光光谱法

荧光光谱法具有操作简单且快速、灵敏等优点,在分析领域得到了广泛地应用[13-14].Lin等[15]开发了以一个基于DNA-Ag纳米粒子的荧光探针,该探针可以高灵敏性、高选择性地检测DA(图1),该方法是在DNA-Ag材料中加入基因染料Genefinder(GF)和DA分子,DA分子与银纳米粒子结合,破坏了DNA-Ag结构,使DNA得以与GF作用,从而使整个体系的荧光增强,而没有DA存在时,DNA-Ag体系的荧光信号很弱.该探针的检出限达到了6.0 nmol/L.Zhang等[16]通过间苯二酚与DA之间的快速反应(5 min),且其反应产物具有很强的荧光信号,从而实现对DA的测定.检测范围为10 nmol/L-20 μmol/L,检出限达到了1.8 nmol/L,该荧光传感器已成功应用于对尿液中DA含量的测定.众所周知,零维的量子点因其量子尺寸效应,导致其具有优异的荧光发光性能[17-18],所以作为零维量子点的代表碳量子点(CDs)和石墨烯量子点(GQDs)已被广泛地应用于DA的测定.Liu等[19]通过3-氨基苯硼酸制备出了量子产率达到67%的B、N掺杂的CDs(B-N-CDs),通过B-N-CDs表面的-NH2以及-B(OH)2与DA表面的-OH作用,成功实现对DA的测定,该方法的检出限达到了0.1 pmol/L.Zhou等[20]以聚吡咯/石墨烯量子点(ppy/GQDs)核壳材料为发光剂,相比于普通的GQDs,该复合材料荧光强度是其3倍多,通过DA和GQDs间的静电和堆积作用,实现对DA的测定,其检测范围可达5-8000 nmol/L,检出限达到了10 pmol/L.表1总结了近年来部分通过荧光法测定DA的报道[15,16,19-27].

荧光光谱法的检测灵敏度较高,但仍存在荧光淬灭效应、散射光的干扰等问题.同时,用于复杂体系中的DA测定是比较困难.

图1 DNA-Ag纳米粒子检测DA的反应机理[15]

表1 荧光传感器测定DA

2 高效液相色谱法

高效液相色谱法(HPLC)是集分离、定性、定量为一体的分析方法,该方法可以用于分离分析多种共存物质,因此也常被用于DA及其类似物的检测[28-30].Tsunoda等[28]采用HPLC分离分析DA和3,4-二羟基苯乙酸(DOPAC)的浓度,并成功地测出小老鼠体内的DA和DOPAC的浓度分别为(4.98±0.66)μmol/L和(1.00±0.11)μmol/L.Chen等[29]在HPLC上加上一个光电二极管阵列,用来分离检测我国国内的草本植物马齿苋中的去甲肾上腺素(NA)和DA的含量,与标准液对比结果良好.同时,二者的检测范围分别为0.004-6.00 μg和0.011-8.25 μg,检出限分别达到了0.40 ng和0.55 ng.Ribeiro等[30]使用HPLC-质谱/质谱联用仪,成功实现了对左旋多巴、甲基多巴肼、恩他卡朋、托卡朋、3-甲氧酪氨酸和DA的同时测定,该方法具有很高的选择性和灵敏性(检出限达7.0 ng·mL-1).

虽然HPLC在混合物的分离、分析中体现了明显的优势,但是HPLC方法的分析成本高,液相色谱仪价格及日常维护费用高,分析时间一般比较长.

3 毛细管电泳法

毛细管电泳法(CE)对于混合物质的检测与分离具有分离时间短、分离效率高、系统体积小且易实现不同操作单元的集成等优点,因此,该方法也得到了广大研究人员的青睐[31].马健等[32]开发了用CE法测定猪尿中DA残留量的方法.在波长为214 nm处,分离电压为15 kV,进样时间为20 s,分离时间为12 min,pH=5.04的醋酸—醋酸钠缓冲液下运行实现DA的完全分离.同时其最低检测限为0.05 μg·mL-1.Thabano等[33]以Si纳米-异丁烯酸作为填充柱材料来提高对DA等的离子交换能力,从而提高CE法检测DA的灵敏度.Fang等[34]将Pd纳米粒子修饰于碳纤维微盘电极表面,并通过CE法成功测定单个大鼠嗜铬细胞瘤细胞中DA的含量.Zhao等[35]通过CE与电化学发光联用法(CE-CL)同时检测DA和肾上腺素.在这项研究中,CdTe量子点加入到CE的电泳缓冲溶液中来促建CL中鲁米诺和H2O2的反应,以增强CE的信号,达到检测的目的,该方法对于DA和肾上腺素的检出限分别达到23 nmol/L和9.3 nmol/L.

CE法中的毛细管柱效高,成本低,操作较为简便,但是分离能力较弱,对pH值要求较高,而且更为关键的是该方法的重现性差.

4 比色法

比色法无需通过精密的设备,可直接用肉眼观察颜色变化并结合其它仪器如紫外可见分光光度计、荧光光谱仪或者颜色处理软件来测定相关组分浓度,具有经济、快速等优点[36].Liu等[8]开发出一种新型的AuNRs-Ag+非聚集比色传感器检测DA的新方法,该方法的检测范围为6.5-65 μmol/L,检出限为0.3 μmol/L,而且该方法已经成功被应用于血液中DA含量的测定,其反应的机理为:DA与Ag+作用释放出Ag0纳米粒子,之后与AuNRs反应形成Au@Ag纳米材料,使得体系的颜色发生变化.Leng等[37]将DA修饰于金纳米粒子表面(DA-AuNPs),在碱性溶液中,通过巯基乙酸的水解产物作为交联剂,使得DA-AuNPs发生聚集导致体系颜色变化,从而实现对DA的测定,该方法在水中、尿液中和血液中的检出限分别达到33 nmol/L、0.1 μmol/L和94 nmol/L.Tao等[38]基于BSA-金纳米簇(BSA-AuNCs)复合材料,制备出一个简单的荧光-比色双通道检测器,该检测器可以高灵敏地检测DA的含量.其机理如图2所示,BSA-AuNCs溶液荧光发射很强,而当DA加入时,DA通过静电吸附于BSA-AuNCs表面,使体系的荧光强度减弱,从而实现荧光光谱检测;此外,DA与BSA-AuNCs作用后,体系的颜色也随着DA的浓度而发生改变,因此,也可以通过视觉观察来确定其浓度,检出限为10 nmol/L.Wen等[39]使用β-环糊精-Au纳米粒子作为光信号源,制备出DA紫外-比色传感器,该方法的检出限达到20 nmol/L.

比色法虽然方便、快捷,但是其准确度不高且灵敏度不好,并且提高准确度还需要借助其它仪器进一步分析.

图2 BSA-AuNCs与DA的作用机理[38]

5 电化学分析方法

电化学分析方法具有操作简便、灵敏度高、选择性好等优点,同时,其还可以对活体进行分析,这一优势是其它方法都无法比拟的[40-45].由于DA具有良好的电化学响应性能,在电流作用下,其分子中苯环上的羟基被氧化生成醌,之后醌会被还原回去,从而实现电化学方法检测.但是,由于抗坏血酸(AA)和尿酸(UA)与DA共存于大脑和体液中,在裸电极上三者的氧化电位相近,容易对DA的检测造成干扰[46-48].因此,在直接电化学检测时,必须考虑AA与UA对DA检测的影响.同时,电化学分析方法虽然快速简单但其稳定性还不够好,因此,在过去的几十年时间里,大量的研究人员通过不断开发与改进电极修饰材料,以进一步更加准确地、灵敏地、稳定地检测DA的含量.目前,常见的用于DA检测的电极修饰材料有有机膜材料和纳米材料两种.

5.1 有机膜材料

5.1.1 有机聚合物膜

聚合物膜修饰电极具有良好的选择性、稳定性和重现性[49-51],同时,具备导电性能好、化学性能稳定等优势,此类修饰电极在DA的电化学检测中也得到广泛的应用.

Wu等[52]用β-环糊精-聚(N-异丙基丙烯酰胺)(β-CD-PNIPAM)修饰电极来检测DA的含量,由于β-CD-PNIPAM具有包容特性,其与DA之间能够通过氢键作用,提高了对DA检测的灵敏度、选择性和稳定性;通过用微分脉冲伏安法(DPV),对于DA浓度检测范围为0.1-60 μmol/L,检测极限为3.34 nmol/L.该课题组也使用了聚乙二醇单甲醚[53]检测DA,结果表明,该聚合物对于DA的检测具有很好的灵敏度和稳定性.Zhang等[54]在石墨烯表面修饰上聚(四苯基卟啉亚铁)和聚(4-苯乙烯磺酸钠)实现了在高浓度的UA和AA的溶液中对于DA的测定,且检出限达到了5.73 nnmol/L.Silva等[55]将聚烯丙胺盐酸盐与金纳米粒子作为平台固定漆酶,通过该复合材料的特定催化作用,使用方波伏安法(SWV)实现对DA的测定,其测定范围为0.49-23.0 μmol/L,检出限达0.26 μmol/L.Vasantha等[56]将聚3,4-乙撑二氧噻吩(PEDOT)聚合物修饰于玻碳电极上,并用于DA的检测.在PEDOT中,由于S原子与AA的阴离子之间存在静电吸引作用,使得AA的氧化峰电位向低电位移动,虽然其与DA阳离子之间的作用为静电排斥,但是由于DA与PEDOT间存在着作用而部分抵消,其氧化峰并无明显移动,这样通过利用AA与DA两者的氧化峰电位不同,来实现二者的同时检测.Sheng等[57]通过一种低成本的电沉积方法,成功制备了PEDOT掺杂非水溶性离子液体1-乙基-3-甲基咪唑双三氟甲磺酰亚胺盐的复合材料.直接电聚合沉积法,大大减少了实验中所需的昂贵的离子液体的用量,大大降低了实验成本.实验结果显示该复合材料的导电率高、性能稳定,而且呈现出高度的纳米微孔结构,对DA具有良好的电化学催化活性,其检测限低至51 nmol/L.

虽然聚合物膜修饰电极为检测DA浓度的发展中起了重要的推动作用,但是有些聚合物的合成过程复杂,有些聚合物还具有一定的毒性,对环境会造成一定的污染.

5.1.2 Nafion膜

Nafion膜(全氟磺酸质子交换膜)是典型的阳离子交换膜,其具有优良的离子交换特性,同时其具备优异的电化学性能、良好的化学性质和机械稳定性[58-60].由于Nafion膜存在阳离子传递通道,有利于DA分子的扩散,同时可以抵消部分中性分子和阴离子,这样就大大缩短了体系的响应时间.同时,由Nafion膜修饰电极之后,传感器对AA和UA的响应灵敏度随着吸附时间的增加而逐渐降低,而对于DA的响应则逐渐增大,因此,Nafion修饰电极对DA的检测具备良好的选择性和高的灵敏度[61].Zhou等[62]直接将Nafion涂于微电极表面,使得微电极表面产生屏障,这样就可以抑制干扰物质扩散到电极表面,而对于DA,其在亲水区域可以通过阳离子通道富集于电极表面,从而达到选择性地富集DA的作用,提高对DA浓度检测的灵敏性和选择性.Hou等[63]通过EDTA与石墨烯键合之后,再跟Nafion作用,并修饰于电极表面(EDTA-rGO-Nafion),由于Nafion膜具有阳离子通道,且EDTA-rGO复合材料表面带有负电荷及其与DA之间能够形成作用,这样就有利于选择性地检测DA,而避免了AA的干扰.其检测范围为0.2-25 μmol/L,检出限达到0.01 μmol/L.Quan等[64]使用Nafion/单壁碳纳米管/聚3-甲基噻吩修饰波碳电极(NF/SWCNT/PMT/GCE)在高浓度的AA和UA存在的情况下实现对DA进行检测,结果表明,在1.0 mmol/L AA和1.0 mmol/L UA存在时,使用DPV对DA浓度进行检测,其浓度范围分别在1.5-20 μmol/L和20-120 μmol/L之间呈现出良好的线性关系,同时该方法可用于实际血液的检测.Hsieh等[65]将立方Pd纳米粒子沉积于还原石墨烯表面(rGO-Pd-NCs),之后将该材料与Nafion混合作用,制备出rGO-Pd-NCs/Nafion纳米复合材料,并修饰于玻碳电极表面,基于该材料对DA的优异选择性,实现对DA的测定,检出限达到了7.0 μmol/L.Tyszczuk-Rotko等[66]制备硼掺杂金刚石纳米粒子,并通过Nafion和Pb2+作用,制备出性能良好的纳米电极膜,该电极可以同时测定人体尿液和血液中的DA和对乙酰氨基酚,对于DA和乙酰氨基酚的检出限达到54 nmol/L和140 nmol/L.

总之,Nafion膜作为电极修饰材料在DA检测方面体现出明显的优势,不过Nafion的价格会相对比较昂贵.

5.2 纳米材料

5.2.1 碳纳米材料

由于碳纳米材料具有多种多样的形态和独特的性质(良好的导电导热性、高的比表面积、稳定的化学和机械性质等),使得其在电、磁、光、热、力学、机械等方面得到广泛的应用,同时碳纳米材料在材料科学、生命科学以及化学分析等领域的应用研究中.也起着非常重要的作用[67-73].如今,碳纳米材料广泛地被用于电极表面修饰,表2显示了一些碳纳米材料所修饰的电极在DA的检测方面所做出的许多贡献[74-97].

表2 基于碳纳米材料电化学传感器测定DA

Britto等[98]利用溴仿作为粘合剂首次将碳纳米管修饰于电极表面,并用该电极研究DA的氧化行为,通过循环伏安曲线表明了DA在碳纳米管电极上可以进行可逆的氧化还原反应.Li等[89]使用碳纳米管(CNTs)与钛铁试剂掺杂的聚吡咯(PPy)层层组装与电极表面,制备出PPy-CNTs电极.由于掺杂了负离子,该修饰电极对DA的检测具备灵敏度高、选择性好的优点.在最优化条件下用方波伏安法检测多巴胺,该修饰电极检测范围为0.02-100.0 μmol/L,检测限为3 nmol/L.该修饰电极具备背景电流小,重现性好的特点,对多巴胺的检测具有良好的抗干扰能力.Gao等[91]将氧化石墨烯(GO)通过共价固定法固定于玻碳电极(GCE)表面,该电极在大浓度AA的环境下实现对DA的检测,主要是由于DA分子较易与GO通过堆积或者静电作用提高电化学响应.由于AA不能与GO产生作用,同时二者之间存在电子排斥作用,从而导致AA电信号消失,因此,GO/GCE能在AA存在的情况下对DA实现高选择性检测.

本课题组基于CDs-壳聚糖(CDs-CS)复合材料,制备了灵敏、稳定的新型DA电化学传感器,因为CDs表面带有-COOH官能团,其更易与带正电荷的DA作用,同时可以排斥带负电荷AA和UA的干扰,该传感器的检测范围为0.1-30 μmol/L,检出限达到11.2 nmol/L[92].之后我们又制备了Au@CDs[93]纳米材料,由于Au纳米粒子具有良好的导电性能,从而提高了DA传感器的灵敏度.同时,通过制备基于rGO-CDs纳米复合材料的DA传感器[94],利用rGO对DA良好的催化作用,提升了DA传感器的灵敏度和选择性.最近课题组制备出Cu2O-CDs纳米复合材料,利用Cu2O优异的催化性能,结合CDs的良好特性,成功实现了对血液中DA含量的测定(图3)[95].本课题组也制备了核壳的Fe3O4@石墨烯(GR)复合材料用于DA的测定[96],其检测范围为0.020 μmol/L-130.0 μmol/L,检出限达到了7 nmol/L.同时我们也制备了氮化碳-GO纳米复合材料,实现了对DA、AA和UA的同时测定[97].

图3 Cu2O-CDs测定DA的机理[95]

5.2.2 其它纳米材料

与碳纳米材料一样,目前还有许多纳米材料如纳米金、纳米氧化铜、纳米氧化锌等,它们具有导电性好、比表面积大等优点,可以提高现有分析方法的灵敏度.近年来越来越多的纳米材料修饰电极被用于DA含量的检测.

Liu等[99]合成二茂铁硫醇盐-Au@Fe3O4纳米材料,并与石墨烯片/壳聚糖耦合(Fc-S-Au@Fe3O4/GS-CS),之后修饰于玻碳电极表面,该修饰电极中Fc-S-Au@Fe3O4和GS-CS都能使体系的信号得到增强,双重信号放大作用使得体系的灵敏度大大地增加(图4),其可以实现对DA、AA、UA以及对乙酰氨基酚(AC)的同时检测.四种物质的检测范围分别为 0.5-50 μmol/L、4.0-400 μmol/L、1.0-300 μmol/L以及 0.3-250 μmol/L.检出限分别为 0.1 μmol/L、1.0 μmol/L、0.2 μmol/L和 0.05 μmol/L.Xia 等[100]通过化学湿选法合成了花瓣状的纳米ZnO材料(f-ZnO),与传统的纳米ZnO相比,f-ZnO具有更大的比表面积以及更好的导电性.将f-ZnO修饰与电极表面,在AA高浓度存在的情况下,使用DPV检测法实现了对DA的灵敏性检测.其检测范围为0.11-180 μmol/L,检出限达0.06 μmol/L.Reddy等[101]通过十六烷基三甲基溴化铵(CTAB)和十二烷基硫酸钠(SDS)共同沉淀的方法合成了不同形状的CuO纳米粒子.之后制备SDS/聚甘氨酸/CuO纳米薄片对电极进行修饰(MCPE),结果显示,MCPE电极在高浓度的AA(250倍)存在下,对于DA的检测具有高的选择性和灵敏性.He等[102]制备了镍铜纳米合金,基于该材料的修饰电极可对DA、AA、UA、鸟嘌呤(G)和腺嘌呤同时测定,其检测范围分别为0.25-40 μmol/L、20-2500 μmol/L、0.5-110 μmol/L、0.5-480 μmol/L 和 0.5-450 μmol/L,检出限分别达到了 0.01 μmol/L、5 μmol/L、0.05 μmol/L、0.1 μmol/L和 0.1 μmol/L.该传感器用于维生素C、多巴胺注入、尿液和DNA中相关分子的测定,结果显示镍铜纳米合金在复杂的生物系统里,具备了优异的测试性能.

图4 Fc-S-Au@Fe3O4/GS-CS检测DA的机理[99]

6 结论与展望

当然,除了以上介绍的几种方法外,还有电化学发光法[103-104],气相色谱法[105],高效液相色谱-荧光联用法[106]等方法可用于多巴胺含量的检测.随着临床医学的不断发展,对DA分析方法的要求也将会更加苛刻,高灵敏度、高通量、高选择性以及经济环保的分析方法仍然有待进一步研究,因此,目前对DA传感器的研究仍存在以下一些问题亟待解决:

(1)如何开发探讨性能更高效、稳定性更强、更加经济环保的方法用于DA的测定.

(2)合成新型的功能化材料,提升DA传感器的灵敏性和选择性.

(3)测定DA的机理研究还处于研究基础阶段,还有待深入.

(4)扩大DA传感器的应用范围(如:制成微电极,对活体内的DA含量进行实时检测).

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