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人人当家的集体经营方略①

2016-03-16坂本典昌

外国问题研究 2016年1期
关键词:经营

坂本典昌 著

祝力新  译



人人当家的集体经营方略①

坂本典昌著

祝力新译

我的父亲坂本美喜男,在1982年创立了光荣株式会社,公司至今已有34年历史。公司的业务范围主要包括建筑用机械、运输类机械的钣金熔接和零件制造等。

公司2014年度的总营业额是3亿6千万日元,通常利润7千5百万日元,通常利润率20.6%,自主资金比率89%。但在此前的15年里公司,一直是负债经营的。

关注公司过去20年间的内部保留资金与自主资金比率图,就能看到长期负债经营的迹象。

对于经营倍感艰辛的我,贪婪地阅读着各种有关经营的读本,终于邂逅了稻盛塾长的著作。读到塾长著作之时的内心感动,我至今无法忘怀。

是塾长的教诲拯救了曾经迷茫的我,于是我开始努力学习,并不断挑战如何改善公司的经营体制。

5年前我加入了盛和塾,学习了稻盛经营哲学的精髓。今天请允许我向大家讲述,我是如何将塾长的教诲应用于实践的。

我出生在称不上富裕的工薪家庭,在得知家里的一位亲戚做生意十分成功之后,心中就产生了自主创业获得成功的强烈愿望。1981年大学毕业后,考虑到将来自立门户的前景,我在大阪的一家小型纤维商社就职了。

两年后,父亲突然辞去了工作,在丝毫没有考虑今后生计的情况下,一手创立了新的公司。果然,毫无远见的事业发展得并不顺利。父亲曾几次央求我去给他的公司搭把手,我却梦想着能够白手起家独立创业。在苦恼之余,我终究无法抛舍下父亲。1987年,我终于做出了艰难的抉择,回到家乡进入父亲的公司工作,那一年我28岁。

进入公司后,不景气的经营现状使我感到十分震惊。营业额逐月下滑,赤字不断膨胀,残酷的现实让我恐惧至极。

每到月末,我都会亲眼目睹父母二人满脸悲切地谈论着资金周转。刚刚回收的现金支票马上拿出去打折兑现,眼看着便要倾家荡产。公司的账户时常空空如也。工厂的场地、父母的房屋、还有其他少量土地,都被拿去抵押贷款,这样的恶性负债滚雪球般越积越多。我惶惶不可终日,每到月底就会因忧愁而夜不能寐,即便睡着也会被噩梦惊醒。最常梦到的就是支票无法兑现,公司破产。那时过的是无法预见未来的、惶恐不安的日子。

另一方面,我却有一位盲目乐观的父亲,他总是认为只要能挨过月底,转机自然就会到来。面对这位凡事不知轻重的父亲,我时常感到莫名愤怒。曾有几次,我对父亲怒吼道:“既然是你擅做主张创立的公司,就给我认真负责到底!老爹你真是一个失败的经营者!”然而父亲却总是找尽各种推脱的理由和借口来为自己辩解。我为有这样的父亲感到羞愤难当,常常忍不住自己一个人生闷气。

公司如此际遇,当然不会有踏实工作的员工。销售队伍涣散不堪,薪酬低廉,自然也是从来没有发放过奖金。

公司的资金链时常处在断裂的边缘,我虽然顶着巨大风险开拓了新的业务,仍然无法保证产品的质量和供期。我一个人承担全部善后工作,心中孤苦不堪。我握紧了拳头,心中呐喊着:“这样的公司还有未来吗?究竟我要怎样努力才能拯救公司?现在我要拼死一搏了!”

怀着绝不服输的心气儿,我不断挑战着自我的极限,却始终无法从人力和资金严重匮乏的困境中挣脱出来。为了偿还银行贷款不断地重新借贷,导致了资金链恶性循环。正是在这样的情况下,公司开展的汽车维修养护业务,一直持续到1988年。

那时工作虽然十分辛苦,也无法预见未来的发展,我还是坚持改善了员工们的薪酬待遇,组织小型公司集体旅行。这个过程十分缓慢艰辛,但却逐渐得到了员工们的认可。

此后,公司开始逐渐摆脱赤字危机,距离盈利却仍有距离。我烦恼的是自己并不真正理解经营为何物,于是开始广泛阅览各种经营读本。其后的1988年,我邂逅了稻盛塾长的著作《提高心性、拓展经营》一书。我反复拜读之后,书的内容深深地震撼了我的心灵。我想:“自己一直寻找的原来就是这个!”在反复研读这本书的过程中,我逐渐改变了从前的一些看法和做法。

书中“无私的人最动人”一节中写道:“应该把自我坐标定位在摆脱私利私欲,为了‘自己所在的集体’而努力拼搏。”这样的教诲一针见血地刺入了我的心中。

我想到:“目前为止我所有的努力,不过是以成就自己的事业和发家致富等私利私欲为出发点的。正是因为我的想法卑微,所以才无法成就大事。我决心要遵循塾长的教诲,舍弃一己私欲,将公司全体员工当做自己所在的集体,为了他们而去努力工作。”

于是,为了重新“构建经营”,我遵照塾长教诲的“每天都要带着使命感全身心地生活,这样的实践能够坚持多久,才是考验经营者真正价值的标准。”我拼命工作,发誓要把自己的一生贡献给经营事业。

首先是彻底贯彻5S*日本制造行业与服务行业中约定俗成的、通用的职场环境守则。包括整理(Seiri)、整顿(Seiton)、清扫(Seisou)、清洁(Seiketsu)和赏罚(shitsuke),因以上五个词汇的日语发音都是以S开头的,所以称为5S信条。译者注。信条,从基础出发建立品质和生产管理体系。然后制定今后的规章守则,并传达给全体员工,督促他们付诸实践。为此,公司组织了每周一次的“光荣员工培训教育”,引导员工自己动手修订了5S的内容、方法以及产品的质量管理等。这个活动刚开展的时候还效果明显,但马上员工们又回到了老样子。公司员工的流动性强,仅靠一、两次的教育实在收效甚微。正在穷途末路之时,我回忆起了塾长的教诲:“能坚持多久才是考验经营者真正价值的标准。”事已至此,我决定哪怕是员工们对我的话充耳不闻,也要坚持到底。这项事业持续到今天,已经历时15年,培训总次数超过700次。

此外,有幸得到客户的从中斡旋,我参加了制造行业的生产方式观摩学习会。我努力学习和掌握如何将利润与现金流二者结合起来的诀窍,并耗时一年实践了丰田公司的“招牌方式”和“一个流程”。“招牌方式”是丰田独创的生产方式,主要是指在必要的时候只生产必需产品和购入必需耗材的管理机制。另外,“一个流程”是指在一个单位内循序渐进地完成多个加工环节,并保证单个产品生产流程的管理方式。丰田公司教会了我削减库存和避免浪费的有效方法。我将在丰田学习到的知识,不断摸索着改良成为适合我公司的管理方式,效仿丰田制订了光荣株式会社的“光荣招牌方式”和“光荣每日生产流程”。这些管理模式收效极大,库存减少了近一半。随后公司营业额也增长了2倍以上。在不投资新设备的前提下,原有的厂房只是调整了生产流程,就能大大增加单位时间内的产量,以满足不断增加的新订单的供货需求。

2000年,针对我公司的主力产品、用于收纳建筑机械空调的AC箱子,客户突然提出了大幅降价的要求。当时这种AC箱子的销量约占总营业额的1成,利润率占5%。而同行竞争企业居然推出了降价15%的优惠政策。痛失主力产品对公司的打击十分巨大,而如果一旦接受客户的降价要求,公司就会出现10%的赤字亏损。我烦恼到极点,甚至考虑要提出辞职。但到了最后关头,我心想:“不如抓住这个机会,尝试着去彻底变革公司体制,尽自己的最后一分力之后再谈放弃不迟。”我勒紧了腰带,开始着手改善生产。

当时负责具体工作的是一位技艺纯熟的老师傅,能否得到他的支持和理解,是一大难题。我对自己的方案十分自信。老师傅果不其然露出了为难的表情。生产流程调整后,还不适应这种工作方式的员工们产生了严重的抵触情绪,纷纷向我抗议道:“社长,这种方法是不可能缩短加工时间的!”生产流程的改革触礁了。

但是我坚定信念,不烦其烦地向员工们反复说明。我低下头恳请员工们,积极宣扬公司改革目的和意义。我对员工们说:“拜托大家了!至少请大家先配合一个月,尽力尝试一下我提出的方法。”员工们终于被我说服,走上了改革之路。

厂房里腾出了一块专用的场地,大幅改良生产工具,主要零配件和原材料“招牌”化。大家集思广益,在实践中摸索如何实现“一个流程”。

结果和预期的一样,最初因为员工们不熟悉生产流程,加工时间的确变缓了,但是随着员工们对新流程的逐渐适应,生产速度眨眼间加快了。我将加工时间的柱状推移表,贴在厂房的通道旁,以供员工们参看。那位老师傅也改变了他的态度,还积极地参与进来提出了好多建设性意见,改良生产流程的步伐更快了。

三个月后,加工时间竟然减半了。改良生产流程的直接结果,就是尽管单个商品的价格下降了15%,但总利润却提高了10%。这简直就是令人无法相信的奇迹,我和老师傅还有所有员工们都激动了。我兴奋地想着:“我们自己的创意和所下的苦工,是能够实实在在地变成利润的!我掌握了‘创造利润的武器’!”

我深刻意识到塾长曾教诲的只要“用心经营”和努力实践,就一定能够取得成绩。

2001年,我42岁之时就任了社长一职。

我此前也曾说过许多对父亲不满的话,但实际上,父亲是一位风趣幽默且富有人格魅力的人。如今回想起来,他在众人心中拥有领袖的魄力,深受员工们的爱戴。而且他心灵手巧,是一位一流的匠人。父亲作为经营者,有使人心甘情愿俯首称臣的人格魅力,他擅于与人沟通,极具亲和力。他总是鼓励我说:“你小子真是很能干啊,我以你为荣!”

父亲的退隐过程也同样精彩,他对我说:“公司就拜托你小子了,要好好为公司打算啊!”就说了这样一句话后,他真的把一切都交托给了我。虽然三年前父亲亡故了,但是他在人生的最后日子里都时刻关心着公司员工们,他也曾时常激励着我。如今想来,我是在父亲的宽阔胸怀里,作为经营者被悉心呵护培养起来的。我非常感谢父亲。

我在就任社长之后,更加满怀热情地投入工作了。这之后营业额与利润也在不断攀升,我开始自信起来了。

第二年我拜读了《稻盛和夫的实践经营塾》一书,却仿佛被当头棒喝了一样。

“只有社长才能给企业注入活力”、“用人格魅力来引领部下”、“没有10%的利润就不能称之为事业”等塾长的箴言警句,无论哪一条我都没有做到。于是我暗下决心:“自己还没有具备经营者应有的魅力和能力。既然如此,就让公司员工们也一道承担经营,开启全体员工共同参与经营的模式。”

开展员工集体经营的第一步,是组织委员会活动。对于工厂经营而言,最重要的课题无外乎是“安全”、“品质”、“改善”、“5S”这四条。分别对应这四个经营课题,公司组建了四个委员会,组织全体员工按照部门分派到不同的委员会中去。通过委员会活动,让每位员工们都能意识到“自己也在参与着公司经营”,这就是创建委员会的目的。

委员会最初开展的并不顺利,为此我非常焦虑。两、三年后,委员会逐渐开始成型,甚至员工们还自发组织了安全巡逻队和检测不合格产品的培训等等,随着一系列经营策略的实施,员工们也成长了起来。

安全委员会的成员以1年为任期,定期更换委员,4年期间几乎所有的员工们都参与过安全委员会,这也从全方位替公司把握了诸多的问题点。另外,这项活动还促成了不同部门之间的友好交流,公司内部的氛围也变好了。

此外,持续至今的“光荣员工培训教育”也收到了较好的效果,产品的质量、工期和员工们的生产积极性都得到了提高,营业额和利润率也大幅好转。

近5年期间,公司营业额增加了2倍,曾仅有4%至5%的通常利润率也在每年攀升,5年时间达到了19.6%。公司终于从债务危机中挣脱了出来,也不必再担心资金周转问题了。我在书店偶然挑选的《提高心性、拓展经营》这本书,改写了我的命运,它将我从人生的谷底拯救了出来。

还有“光荣员工培训教育”,推行一系列提高生产品质和员工积极性的措施,敦促员工们和公司共同进步。公司的业绩得到了社会的普遍认可,2007年我公司还获得了石川县人才培养优良企业第1名的荣誉。

成功的喜悦,只是一个短暂的瞬间。2008年,全球经济遭遇了雷曼冲击*2008年美国第四大投资银行雷曼兄弟公司宣布破产,进而引发了全球性的金融危机。译者注。。其影响远比预想的要严重得多,公司营业额激剧下滑,有些月份甚至只有前年度的2成。为了减少赤字亏损的燃眉之急,我将员工们的薪酬减半,这一举措也得到了公司干事们的协助。此外,我还重新核查了公司所有的经费开支,彻底推行了经费最小化策略。

其中,为了进一步压缩制造成本,我将从AC箱子中学习到的生产成本改良办法,推行到公司全体员工中,设置了以QC*即Quality Control,品质管理。译者注。小组活动为中心的小集团。这是“员工集体经营策略”的第二大课题。

公司共组建了5个小集团,同时指示员工以“缩减加工时间”为主题,共同商议具体办法。

但是员工们却对我抱怨说:“光是委员会活动就已经很辛苦了,还要再加上小集团活动,实在是不堪重负了!”这些不满和疑虑的声音充斥在公司内部。公司的氛围开始紧张起来,很多人指责道:“因为是社长的命令,所以没办法就一定要去执行!”由于无法承受工作的艰辛和任务的压力,许多员工纷纷辞职离开了公司。当时的我偏执地认为:“员工们真是可笑!无法追随我改革的步伐,那我也只能放弃这样没用的员工了!”我努力将自己不切实际的言行正当化。我那时因为公司的业绩低迷而变得敏感暴躁,员工们稍微犯些小错也会遭到我的大声呵斥。在员工们眼中,我是“遥不可及高高在上”的存在。

无法顺利推行小集团活动是当然的结果。本应顺风顺水的委员会活动也因遭遇了制度化和程序化而停滞不前。本来构思委员会和小集团并行发展,却与自己理想中的“员工集体经营策略”渐行渐远。

这样的境况下,公司2009年度的营业额锐减为2年前的6成。由于大力削减了经费开销,公司才总算是没有赤字亏损而已。

这之后的2010年,我收到了中村敬盛前辈的邀请,正式加入了盛和塾。

此前我曾拜读过许多塾长的著作,用自己的方法去揣摩体会稻盛经营哲学。进入盛和塾之后,才发现仅凭我的自学并未真正领会稻盛哲学的精髓。在不断的学习过程中,我惊叹稻盛哲学的奥义之深,也对自己曾经的自大十分羞愧。

我首先意识到,最重要的经营十二条中的第一条“明确事业的目的和意义”,我没有真正做到。

我之前推行的经营理念,并没有深入人心,只是一种形式上的装裱而已。因为缺乏真正的思想根基,不论我如何卖力地在工作现场推销自己的方针,都会因为没有说服力而无法真正传达给员工,自然也就失去了团结员工的向心力。以“人人当家的全员集体经营”为目标开始的委员会和小集团活动,显然也是由于这一点而无法顺利开展的。

我公司制定了全新的经营理念,以京瓷公司为范本,“在追求全体员工的物心两方面的幸福的同时,对社会有所贡献”。我笃定地认同这个理念,心中不再迷茫。自那时开始,我在员工中大力宣传和推行:“我公司的目的是使所有人都幸福”、“为了达成这一目的,全体员工共同努力发展公司,集体参与公司经营”。

在每周一次的全体会议上,公司员工们共同诵读经营理念。如今所有员工都能将公司理念倒背如流。我切身体会到了经营哲学的目的和意义是如何渗透人心的。

随后,我开始着手制订公司的经营哲学。

“光荣经营哲学”出台后,在每天的早会上我组织大家轮流朗读。每周一次的全体会上让员工们传阅《提高心性、拓展经营》一书。“光荣员工培训教育”也成了经营哲学系列中的重要组成部分。此外还在每月一次的例会上,采用塾长的DVD和著作为教材,在员工中开展经营哲学的学习会。

对于经营哲学,员工们最初非常抵触,认为经营哲学“晦涩难懂”、“像宗教仪式一样的东西”、“不知道社长在想什么”等。但我的决心从未动摇,我不断地向员工们灌输道:“没有经营哲学,公司就没有未来,大家也不会实现幸福!”由于我的坚持不懈,随着学习不断地深入开展,大家渐渐地理解了我的想法。

“每天早晨阅读经营哲学来荡涤心灵,怀着愉悦的心情开始一天的工作”,员工们微笑着互相打招呼,这也正是经营哲学力量的直接体现。

我发现,员工们投入工作的身影和公司内部的氛围都充满了活力。为了在短时期内研发出新产品,大家毫不松懈地每天坚持加班到很晚。从前上司不愿去真心教导下属,现在却能发自内心地训导出错了的员工。

从前停滞不前的小集团活动也自发复苏了。我经常能看到员工们积极的言论和行动,工作上的成绩也突飞猛进。委员会和小集团这两个课题,曾经是不能两全的艰难选择,现在却能同时发展。不知何时,公司经营已经开始逐渐接近“员工集体参与经营”的理想模式了。

最近,我公司收到了来自客户的诸多好评:“规模虽小,却能同时开展委员会和小集团活动,真是太棒了!”“虽然是老品牌的公司了,产品却能够不断推陈出新,我喜欢这样的工厂!”“大家的心连在一起,真是让人感动落泪的职场环境!”面对这些溢美之词,公司全体员工都十分感怀。

我想这是由于经营哲学真正渗透到了员工们的心中,公司拥有了向心力,大家才能如此团结一致。

从我公司的图表数据中可见,营业额与经营利润率的推移变化过程。在我进入盛和塾后,公司营业额增长了,通常利润率4年之间增长了19.1%。

回顾当初公司的内部保留与自主资本比率的图表,真是天壤之别了。

因为幸运地邂逅了塾长的著作,将我从债务危机中拯救出来。加入盛和塾后,公司更是加速成长起来了。公司从破产的危机中解脱出来,能有今天的成就,全是得益于塾长的教诲。感激之情无以言表。真的非常感谢塾长!

下一步,我要投入的是阿米巴经营的导入工作。这也是“集体经营策略”的第三个目标。

入塾后,自我拜读了塾长的著作《阿米巴经营》以来,一直在坚持学习相关内容。著作中提到:“阿米巴经营就是人人当家做主,使员工们自主地参与到经营中来。”我坚信,只有实现阿米巴经营,我一直梦想的“真正的集体经营策略”才能达成。我将塾长的著作当成教科书,开始着手研发各部门的决算系统。

对于IT完全外行的我,自33岁开始坚持自学,独立研发了收发订单、生产管理和原价管理等公司运营的电子系统。

将那些系统有机地链接在一起,就完成了2011年度各部门的核算系统,这其中的每日决算数据都能在系统上随时查阅。我每天都可以检查“单位时间核算表”,这也是塾长教诲的“座舱式仪表”。

目前,以各部门经理为主要对象开展了“阿米巴经营”的教育活动,公司内部马上也会启动“阿米巴经营”导入计划。直到今天,公司内部构筑起来的委员会和小集团活动,再加上阿米巴经营的助力,我公司一定会实现“人人当家做主、真正的集体参与型经营”。

最后我要说的是,去年我公司得到了“稻盛经营哲学大奖、制造行业第一组第一名”的奖励。我要感谢塾长的教诲、同道中人的鼓励以及全体员工的辛勤工作,还有与我28年甘苦与共的妻子惠子的支持。请允许我借此机会,表达我的感谢之情。

能够有幸得到这样的激励,今后我将更加发愤图强,用脚踏实地的努力来“投入经营”。

(责任编辑:冯雅)

CONTENTS

The Ethical Stance of Tokugawa Japanese Confucian Philosophers

Huang Junjie[Chun-chieh Huang](4)

This article argues that Tokugawa Japanese Confucian philosophers were inclined to utilitarian ethics as opposed to intentional ethics. This ethical stance manifested itself in Japanese Confucian philosophers’comments on historical personages and reinterpretations of the Confucian core values such as the humanity (Jen, 仁) and the Way (Dao, 道).We argue in section 1 that Japanese Confucians insisted that the “goodness” was not made possible by one’s good intention, but in the effects of his deeds. We assert in section 2 that Japanese Confucians placed the priority of achievement over virtue in their comments on Kuanzhong (管仲) and Tang Taizong (唐太宗).In section 3 and 4, we argue that Japanese Confucian philosophers had interpreted Confucian core values, humanity and the Way, in an utilitarian perspective. Moreover, their “utilitarian ethics” were deeply imbued in the spirit of pragmatism (jitsugaku, 实学) in the Japanese tradition. Therefore, the question of “how is virtue possible” had been turned into the question of “what are the results of virtue.” In the Japanese Confucian utilitarian ethics, the moral ideal can easily be betrayed by the reality of history. We conclude by indicating that the intrinsic value of morality in Japanese Confucian ethics may readily be ignored and the subjectivity and autonomy of morality may hardly be affirmed.

OgyuSorai’s idea of Ghosts-Spirits and theonomic ethics

Cai Zhenfeng[Chen-feng Tsai](11)

This paper attempts to discuss the learning of OgyuSorai, not from the perspective of modernity but in the context of traditional Confucianism, and to contemplate what kind of Confucian morality it reflects—or transforms. Based on what Sorai has said: “The Way of ancient kings is nothing more than building its foundation on venerating Heaven and Ghosts and Spirits,” we can elucidate the special character of Sorai’s moral philosophy in East Asian Confucianism and the difference between him and Chinese Confucianism by analyzing his idea of Ghosts and Spirits. This paper argues that Sorai’s idea of Ghosts and Spirits and worship is transparently characterized by theonomic ethics; therefore, his philosophy can hardly be a kind of modernismin West Europe. This character made the learning of Sorai form an absolute pattern of difference sequence (差序格局) in the world of heaven and man, nature and temperament, and rites and music. Human nature, therefore, is basically neutral-neither good nor evil. Comparing with Dai Zhen (1724—1777) and JeongYak-yong (1762—1836), two East Asian scholars who were against Chu Xi’s idea of the Principle of Heaven and who both maintained the goodness of human nature and exalted Mencius philosophy, Sorai’s idea represented an obvious “Japaneseness” in the world of East Asian Confucianism. To understand this Japaneseness, “ancient layer” (Koso古層) and “basso ostinato” (執拗的低音) provided by Maruyama Masao when discussing the history of Japanese philosophy can be useful for us.

The Formation of Matusnagasyakugo’s Ethical Thoughts and their Confucianist Application

Wang Mingbing(20)

Sekigo Matsunaga’s thought not only based on the doctrine of his teacher Seika Fujiwara, but also greatly influenced by the Confucianist Chenchun of Nansong period. From a intertextuality point of view, it is clear that the interpretations of “命、性、心、情、意、诚、敬”in 《彝伦抄》are borrowed from that of Chenchun’s 《北溪字义》. Sekigo Matsunaga’s demonstration of integrating Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism, and his following of the Confucian idea of “三纲五常”are thoroughly practiced in his academic by the Confucian discipline of “传道授业”.His devotion to establishing Chunqiu School, lecturing and inspiring pupils and especially the fact that most of the intellects in Edo were instructed by him outstands him more important a Confucian educator rather than a philosopher.

The Kogakuha’s Ethical Theory on Interpretation and Deconstruction of the Four Books

Dong Haozhi(28)

The kogakuha in Edo Period of Japan is world-famous for anti-Song Thought. In the process of criticize, Yamaga Sokou, Ito Jinsai, Ogyu Sorai had new explanation for the Four Books. This paper regards this understanding as the study object and explores for new explanation and deconstruction, taking their Confucianism’s Ethical Theory as the core, which highlights their thought feature of kogakuha.

The Rethink of The Influence FromZhu Shunshui’s Thought on Ogyu Sorai

Gao Yue(39)

Ogyu Sorai absorbed many qualities by Zhu Shunshui’s theory which called “Liu Jing”and“Zuo Guo Shi Han”in normal conditions.its also beyond Edo Neo-Confucianism.This article will reveal features and evolution between Sorai Ogyu and Shunshui Zhu’s theory. This synchronization beyond time and space is not only attributed to Ogyu Sorai’s regular correspondence with Zhu Shunshui’s disciples, but also to Kaga Domain who was deeply influenced by Zhu Shunshui’s thoughts and therefore became another effective access to resources.

Tradition of Watsuji Tetsuro and Transformation of “Modern” Thought

Xu Xingqing[Shing-ching Shyu](43)

This essay investigates Watsuji Tetsuro (1889—1960), a scholar of Japanese philosophy and ethics as well as a historian of Japanese culture and thought, and his discourse on the Sakoku Edict issued by Tokugawa Bakufu in terms of the return to and the criticism on tradition, cultural and spiritual assassination, and rationalism of Christianity, as a way of exploring the merits and faults of the Sakoku Edict. It also analyzes the relations between Watsuji’s statement of rebuilding “Japanese culture” and the transformation of “modern” thought by focusing on Watsuji’s thought of revering the emperor and Confucian criticism as well as his cultural influence and non-influence.

The Reception of Marxism and Social Democracy in Early Twentieth-Century Japan:Katayama Sen and the Early Labor Movement

OTA Hideaki(52)

Most of today’s social democratic parties in West Europe originated from the Second International, which formed in 1889. In the age of the Second International many of social democrats attached importance to democracy as an essential means to achieve a socialist society, and upheld Marxism. Writings of Karl Kautsky, the theoretical leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), were considered the “orthodox” interpretation of Marxism.When the Second International was formed among European socialists, Japan, which had just achieved the Industrial Revolution, began to be confronted with “the social problems” caused by the development of capitalism, such as labor disputes, deterioration of living environment in cities, and so on. In the late of 1890s, some Japanese intellectuals started to pay attention to the social problems, and formed organizations to research them, which included the Social Policy Association (1896), the Sociological Association (1897), the Society for the Study of Social Problems (1897), and the Society for the study of Socialism (1898). One of the key figures in this trend was Katayama Sen (1859~1933).Katayama not only researched the social problems, but also leaded the earliest labor union and cooperative movement in Japan. Furthermore, he linked these movements to socialism, and tried to convert them into revolutionary social democratic movement. This paper considers how Katayama, a pioneer of social democracy in Japan, accepted and interpreted Marxism in his own way.

Prohibit Japanese Pirates and Tributary : Ming Taizu’s Main Communicative Purpose with Japan

Liu XiaodongNian Xu(59)

Ming Taizu’s main communicative purpose with Japan is always attributed to “prohibit Japanese Pirates”, but by comparing the imperial edicts of the early Hongwu period, we can find a new probability that is Ming Taizu’s main communicative purpose with Japan maybe is to make Japan submitted to Ming Dynasty, “prohibit Japanese Pirates” is only the secondary purpose. Ming Taizu take the states’submittal as the external certification of governmental orhtodoxy. In this respect, Japan is very important. Because Japan’s unyieldingness to Yuan dynasty had been establish as a protective attitude toward “The Huayi Order”. The record about Japanese King kaneyosisinnou’s tribute in Hongwu 4 year maybe is a intentional description to satisfied with Ming Taizu’s purpose.

The Threefold Variation of the “Theory of Expelling the Barbarians” from the Tokugawa to Early Meiji Period

Zhang Kunjiang[Kun-chiang Chang](67)

There are three parts in this paper,describing the developments and changes of “Theory of Expelling the Barbarians” from early modern to modern Japan. The paper points out that the first stage the awareness to expel the barbarians arose in the early-middle Tokugawa period. At this stage, “barbarian” referred to “the internal,” which corresponded to the“Chinese” of Chinese Culture and, in particular, the “Chinese” of Confucian culture. Therefore, some Tokugawa intellectuals were eager to refute the idea of “Chinese as the Other, Barbarians as Us.”The hot debates on Chinese Barbarianism at this stage demonstrated cultural autonomy.The second stage of Expelling the Barbarians treated “barbarian” as “the external,” and “barbarian” primarily referred to “Western” interferences. At this stage, the “external barbarians” had become a military threat, and culturally, this caused changes in the bushido philosophies.Regarding the third stage of the Theory of Expelling the Barbarians, the “Theory of Civilization” that was based in the West had replaced the usual term “Theory of Expelling the Barbarians” in the East. FukuzawaYukichi’s Theory of Civilization was a prominent representation of the “reversal” of Eastern into Western cultures. This paper also shows the two main differences between this wave of “Theory of Civilization” and the “Theory of Chinese Barbarians” of Confucianism in the past.The first is the switch from “virtue” to “wisdom” in ethics. The second is the switch from “benevolence” to “fidelity” under the principle of transcendence. The virtues of “fidelity”,“filial piety”, “wisdom”, “virtue,” and “benevolence” in Confucianism had all been changed by the proponents of the Theory of Civilization and the Theory of Sovereignty in the Meiji period into concepts of virtue that reflected the ideas of Japanese autonomy, and in this way, they had become a “New Theory of Civilization” at the center of the nationalist spirit.After this wave of “New Theory of Civilization,” Japan had not only become independent from Chinese culture, she had also overcome FukuzawaYukichi’s Theory of Civilization, from which she had created an “East Asian Theory of Civilization.” Japan called herself the honorary representation of “East Asian Culture.” She became the reference for theories on the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere later on, and dominated the ideological dialogues after the Meiji period until the Second World War.

The social chaos in late Ming Dynasty in the observation of Korean Envoys:Centering on Korean Envoys’Chao Tian Lu

Diao Shuren(79)

As a part of Scholar-officials,the Korean Envoys identified themselves as “Chinese”. They took Chinese Culture as the standard of all as well as the universal values,and use these values to observe and think. Their observation and thinking on Chinese society provide us a new perspective to study the late Ming period,and their comments on the chaos in late Ming Dynasty are exactly the reactions of their universal values. Therefore, the Envoys’Ultimate Concern contains the idea of taking Ming Dynasty as a warning to Korea,but moreover,it also carries an expectation of achieving the real “China” by replacing Ming with Korea.

Nagasaki To-tsuji and Tokugawa Japan’s “Cherishing Traders from Afar”

Wang Laite(89)

The To-tsuji group in Qing-Japan trade possess the official identity under the Tokugawa Bakufu as well as interpreters. By tidying up the historical origin, the evolution of organization and function of these people,reviewing their actions in the trading activities, we can clarify how Tokugawa regime established its own regional order and trading system by imitating China’s Tributary system, and how did Bakufu implemented the imagined “Japanese Hua-Yi Order” into action by exerting its authority on the Chinese traders.

Zhongyuan Dynasty’s Cognition of the Okhotsk Sea before 6th Century

Shen Yimin(97)

The Okhotsk Sea is an important natural factor which has a great influence on the political situation in Northeast Asia. Based on 〈Shanhaijing(山海经)〉,the courts of Zhongyuan(中原,central area)had probably known the existence of the Okhotsk Sea as early as in the pre-Qin period. But the cognition of the Okhotsk Sea hadn’t been inherited by the aftertime. The courts of Zhongyuan had to restart the recognitive process to the Okhotsk Sea in the Wei, Jin, South and North Dynasty. There was some definite evidence to prove that the courts of Zhongyuan had known the existence of the Okhotsk Sea in the Northern Wei Dynasty from which the Northeast tribes such as Wuluohou(乌洛侯), Doumolou(豆莫娄)etc. delivered the message, and the river systems such as Wanshui(完水), Nanshui(难水)etc. existed.

[收稿日期]2016-03-01

[作者简介]坂本典昌,日本光荣株式会社董事长。

[文献标识码]A

[文章编号]1674-6201(2016)01-0113-05

①本文由日本盛和塾提供。

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