重复肾盂输尿管畸形致病因素研究进展
2016-03-13李斌张建军段文元王同建金讯波
李斌,张建军,段文元,王同建,金讯波
·综述·
重复肾盂输尿管畸形致病因素研究进展
李斌,张建军,段文元,王同建,金讯波△
重复肾盂输尿管畸形属于先天性肾脏和尿道畸形(CAKUT)范畴内的一种疾病,发病率约0.07%。其表现形式不一,可与其他器官畸形同时发生,可能合并尿道下裂、隐睾、输精管缺如、睾丸和阴茎发育不全等男性生殖系统症状。可终生无明显自觉症状,亦可因继发性积水、结石等逐渐对患侧肾功能造成不可逆损害。该病的家族发病现象在CAKUT中居前列,因其在遗传学上具有不完全外显性,为遗传学研究带来一定困难,其发病机制尚不完全明确,但不少研究证明该病的发病与基因突变、拷贝数变异及环境等多因素有关。在患者中检测到的部分致病因素已在动物模型中得到验证,同时也有致病基因仅在患者或动物模型中发现。综述近年来重复肾盂输尿管畸形致病因素的研究进展。
肾盂;输尿管;基因;变异(遗传学);环境
【Abstract】The duplex collecting system,amalformation of duplex renal pelvis and ureter,is a disease of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract(CAKUT).Themorbidity of this disease is about0.07%.There is a broad spectrum of forms,or it may accompany with many anomalies of other organs,such as hypospadia,cryptorchidism,vas deferens absence,and hypoplasia of testis and penis.Some of patientsmay feel no discom fort all through their life,meanwhile others may get irreversible impairment of renal function due to secondary hydronephrosis and calculi.The family history of the duplex collecting system is the most frequent within all CAKUT.Owing to its incomplete penetrance and the undefined pathogenesis,the genetic research of this disease is a challenge.It was found that this disease is related to gene mutations,copy number variants,and interaction between heredity and environmentand some other factors.Some pathogenic factors found in human have also been confirmed in animalmodels,while others could be found either in animalmodels or human.We herein reviewed the research progress of the pathogenic factors of duplex collecting system.
【Keywords】Kidney pelvis;Ureter;Genes;Variation(genetics);Environment
(JIntReprod Health/Fam Plan,2016,35:339-343)
基金项目:国家重点基础研究发展计划(2013CB945402)
作者单位:250022济南军区总医院心血管病研究所(李斌,段文元,王同建);山东大学附属山东省立医院泌尿微创中心(李斌,张建军,金讯波)
通信作者:段文元,E-mail:dwy2115@126.com;王同建,E-mail:wang tongjian0425@126.com
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审校者
重复肾盂输尿管畸形是先天性肾脏和尿道畸形(congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract,CAKUT)范畴内的一种疾病,指单侧或双侧肾脏存在两个相对独立的肾盂结构,并常有两条输尿管发出于肾脏,发病率约0.07%,在CAKUT中的发病率仅低于先天性肾盂输尿管连接部梗阻(ureteropelvic junction obstruction,UPJO)[1]。该病因发病部位、输尿管数目、融合与否及融合位置、注入膀胱与否及开口位置、是否伴发膀胱输尿管反流、输尿管末端囊肿等不同而临床表现各异,可单独发生,也可与其他器官异常以综合征的形式出现[1]。
CAKUT是儿科肾功能损害的最常见原因,在美国占儿科终末期肾功能衰竭病因的31%[2]。研究其发病风险因素及防治策略非常必要。现从基因突变、拷贝数变异(copy number variants,CNVs)、环境因素等方面对近年来重复肾盂输尿管畸形的风险因素进行系统综述。
1 基因突变
1.1L1CAM L1CAM定位于Xq28,编码细胞黏附分子L1。L1作为配体或配体的受体参与细胞外的相互作用和细胞内的信号转导,最早被发现表达于神经元及上皮细胞,作用于神经元的生成和细胞迁移、促进轴突生长和髓鞘化。其突变早先被证实可引发胼胝体发育不全、脑积水、痉挛性截瘫、拇指内收、精神发育迟滞等神经发育异常。Debiec等[3]发现L1CAM在肾的发育尤其是远曲小管和集合管的发育过程中起重要作用,并于1998年报道后进一步通过敲除L1CAM基因,建立了重复肾盂输尿管畸形的小鼠模型,重复输尿管可分别开口于膀胱,亦可融合后进入膀胱,同时部分小鼠出现包括肾髓质发育异常在内的其他多种肾脏先天畸形。Liebau等[4]于2007年报道了1例L1CAM致双侧重复肾盂输尿管、右侧巨输尿管并膀胱输尿管反流伴发脑积水、胼胝体发育不全的患儿,突变为L1CAM基因18号内含子剪切序列2 bp的碱基缺失(c.2431+2delTG),证实L1CAM可导致人肾脏发育异常。该研究认为L1CAM突变可导致包括肾盂输尿管重复在内的多种肾脏畸形,建议将之作为肾脏和尿路畸形的候选基因。
1.2Wnt5a Wnt5a在全身多器官、组织中表达,在输尿管芽中也有表达[5]。2014年Huang等[6]以其为靶点,建立了斑马鱼和小鼠的基因敲除模型,基因敲除斑马鱼患肾囊肿和肾小管扩张,基因敲除小鼠出现包括重复肾盂输尿管在内的多种肾脏畸形。然而,该基因发生突变导致人重复肾盂输尿管畸形至今仍未见大样本有说服力的报道。
1.3Foxc1、Foxc2属于叉头框基因家族,编码叉头框转录因子。2000年Kume等[7]发现Foxc1纯合突变导致小鼠胚胎后肾发育异常,可出现重复肾输尿管畸形等多种表型。Foxc1、Foxc2同时发生杂合突变常导致心血管系统畸形和肾脏发育不良,而单纯Foxc1 或Foxc2杂合突变不能致病。2003年Nakano等[8]在7例CAKUT患者中检测到3例患者存在Foxc1插入突变。说明这2个基因存在致病潜能。
1.4FGFR2 Zhao等[9]于2004年描述了FGFR1与FGFR2在小鼠输尿管芽发育过程中的作用,FGFR2突变引起输尿管芽异常分支,且引起肾体积缩小、形态异常。Bates[10]肯定了前人相关研究的成果,并进一步确认FGFR2异常可引起包括膀胱输尿管反流在内的多种先天性泌尿系畸形。
1.5FMN1 Dimitrov等[11]2010年首次报道在1例少指畸形、听力缺损、肾发育缺陷的患者中检测到FMN1突变。Nicolaou等[12]在453例CAKUT患者筛查中检测到3例重复肾盂输尿管畸形患者存在FMN1终止或错义突变,认为FMN1是一种少见的可引发重复肾盂输尿管畸形的基因。
1.6SIX1包括重复肾盂输尿管畸形在内的多种泌尿系畸形可以作为腮耳肾综合征(branchio-oto-renal syndrome,常染色体显性遗传)中泌尿系统症状的形式出现。Ruf等[13]2004年报道SIX1突变可导致人腮耳肾综合征。Ou等[14]2008年发现1例发育迟缓伴多发畸形,症状类似于腮耳肾综合征及小儿眼耳脊椎综合征(oculoauriculovertebral spectrum)的患者存在SIX1和SIX6扩增。Negrisolo等[15]证实SIX1缺陷小鼠也可出现肾积水、输尿管积水、肾发育不良等泌尿系症状。
1.7EYA1 Kalatzis等[16]1998年报道EYA1可导致人腮耳肾综合征,其在肾脏的表达与泌尿及集合系统异常密切相关。随后Johnson等[17]在EYA1第7内含子插入IAP形成突变,成功诱导出腮耳肾综合征小鼠模型。Ruf等[13]认为SIX1引发泌尿系畸形的机制在于突变破坏了EYA1-SIX1-DNA复合体的稳定性,EYA1在该复合体中作用亦不可或缺,其突变破坏复合体稳定。Morisada等[18]也曾报道EYA1的部分缺失致腮耳肾综合征,出现腮耳肾等多器官发育不良症状。
1.8PAX2 Pax2和Emx2同位于染色体10q区域。Boualia等[19]2011年提出Pax2能调控Emx2的表达,二者同时突变可引起人重复肾盂输尿管畸形,而且Pax2突变致病的患者往往伴发膀胱输尿管反流。Paces-Fessy等[20]2012年建立Pax2和Hnf1b共突变的动物模型,观察到明显的肾发育不良、重复肾盂输尿管、先天性巨输尿管和肾积水等典型CAKUT症状。Weber等[21]的研究也有类似发现。同时,Pax2变异还可以常染色体显性遗传模式引发肾缺损综合征(renal coloboma syndrome,RCS)[22],表现为肾发育异常、视神经缺损、视网膜和视盘发育不良。
1.9GATA3 Grote等[23]报道GATA3的失活会导致胎儿肾发育过程中细胞过早分化及受体酪氨酸激酶(RET)受体基因表达缺失,进一步导致异位输尿管芽的生成,最终出现肾发育不良、重复肾盂输尿管、输尿管积水、输精管增生、子宫发育不全等一系列症状。Zhu等[24]、Ferraris等[25]都曾报道过GATA3导致甲状旁腺功能减退-感音神经性耳聋-肾发育不良(HDR)综合征,说明GATA3除了在肾脏发育中起作用之外,在听力系统、甲状旁腺都有调控作用。
1.10WT1 WT1作为抑癌基因/原癌基因早被证实与Wilms肿瘤及神经母细胞瘤、乳腺癌等肿瘤发病相关,而且在白血病病程中也处于高表达状态,近年来发现其在胎儿肝肾等多器官发育中都有调控作用[26]。Tatsumi等[27]发现作用于WT1的miR-125a失活能导致小鼠髓系恶性肿瘤及泌尿生殖畸形。Loo等[28]发现WT1致支气管闭锁、肺发育障碍及肾脏异常,随后又报道在检测7例先天性双侧肾缺如并发心脏缺损的患儿胚胎后发现6例肝脏中WT1表达异常。Zirn等[29]也曾报道一个WT1引发慢性肾病及重复输尿管畸形的家系。说明WT1突变确实是泌尿系畸形的相关基因。
1.11GDNF/RET GDNF/RET信号通路在肾脏发育尤其是输尿管芽和集合系统的发育中起重要作用。1996年Pichel等[30]及Moore等[31]都发现敲除GDNF基因后小鼠出现肾缺如及肾、输尿管发育不全。Chatterjee等[32]对122例CAKUT患者进行GDNF、RET、SPRY1(RET的抑制基因)测序,发现6例无血缘关系的患者存在GDNF或RET基因变异,而且在一个重复肾盂输尿管的患者家系中发现了一个新的RET的突变位点RET-R831Q。在1例存在肾发育不全、巨输尿管和隐睾的患者检测到其既有RET-G691S多态位点及RET-R982C突变,还同时存在GFRα1(RET的辅助受体基因)突变GFRα1-G443D。他们的研究发现5%的CAKUT患者存在GDNF-GFRα1-RET信号通路的有害突变。
此外,Fgfrl1[33]、DSTYK[34]、TRAP1[35]、UPK3A[36]、AGTR1[12]、SEMA3A[37]、ADFs/cofilin[38]等多个基因也有报道参与输尿管芽发育等过程而与重复肾盂输尿管或CAKUT相关,但因病例数不多或仅限得到动物实验的证实,此处不再详述。
2 CNVs
CNVs是染色体重排的一种表现形式,包括缺失和扩增两种形式,可致多种先天性疾病,尤其是多器官发育异常、智力障碍等多种症状合并发生时应警惕存在拷贝数变异的可能。
Smith等[39]早在1992年就曾报道过1例46,XY,dic t(X;21)(p11.1;p11.1)易位导致肢体不对称、重复肾盂输尿管、膈肌发育不良的病例。Weber等[21]在30例综合征性CAKUT(CAKUT同时伴发至少一种肾外症状)患者中筛查出3例患者存在染色体扩增/缺失,其中1例重复肾、膀胱输尿管反流并发红斑的患者存在t(2;7)不平衡易位,其未患病母亲检测到t(2;7)平衡易位。Westland等[40]筛查80例CAKUT患者发现了包括已知及新发在内的共13个CNV,其中5个新发CNV所在基因被证实在泌尿系统特异性表达,由此进一步提出DLG1和KIF12是人类CAKUT易感基因。笔者认为在肾、输尿管发育过程中起调控作用的基因或调控基因等随染色体重排易位或发生扩增缺失,导致其表达及功能发生变化,都可能进一步导致肾、输尿管发育的异常。
3其他因素
表观遗传学修饰(包括甲基化/去甲基化、组蛋白乙酰化、组蛋白磷酸化等)异常也可致病。Jin等[41]报道对1例患左侧肾缺如而其同卵双胞胎却表观正常的两人行全外显子组检测及CNV检测均无不同,而甲基化筛查发现两人存在514个区域的甲基化不同。而且,泌尿系统畸形的发生可能与发育时所处的宫内理化因素及母亲健康状况有关。Hsu等[42]以1 944例先天性肾发育不良或肾缺如、梗阻性肾病患者为对象进行研究,发现其发病与母亲糖尿病、肥胖、种族有关。Jurkiewicz等[43]曾报道切尔诺贝利核泄漏之后出现了1例左侧5倍重复肾盂输尿管结构的患儿,说明放射线对重复肾盂输尿管畸形也可能存在致病潜能。
综上,对于CAKUT的致病原因,目前的研究半数以上是囊括全部CAKUT疾病谱加以探索,而单独将肾缺如、先天性巨输尿管、肾发育不良、膀胱输尿管反流、囊性肾病、后尿道瓣膜、重复肾盂输尿管畸形等作为独立病种进行研究的相对少见,为具体病种的致病基因研究及文献分析带来了一定的困难。
各基因在CAKUT中的致病倾向性也有所不同。一方面,部分CAKUT的致病/易感基因在以往研究中表现出针对某种畸形的倾向性。如HNF1B、BICC1主要引起囊性肾病,ITGA8、FRAS1致病多倾向于肾缺如,ROBO2、GREM1、FGF多致膀胱输尿管反流,UMOD引发肾发育不全、肾萎缩,LGR4致肾融合等。另一方面,半数以上基因发生变异又可导致多种泌尿系统畸形,如DACH1可致肾发育不良、肾发育不全、巨输尿管、膀胱输尿管反流等多种表现[44]。推测这种现象的出现与基因在胚胎肾发育过程中的作用节点及其与其他基因的综合作用有关。
同时,有些基因在泌尿系之外的组织也有表达,使基因致病有时以综合征的形式表现:FREM1突变可导致鼻裂,伴发/不伴发肾脏和肛直肠管畸形;SALL1突变可导致Townes-Brocks综合征,出现无肛、拇指多指、纵裂、耳发育畸形、肾发育不良、尿道下裂、隐睾;FGF8引发低促性腺激素性功能减退症,出现喉结小、阴毛和腋毛缺如、骨龄落后、嗅觉缺失或嗅觉减退、男子乳腺增生、小阴茎、隐睾和输精管缺如、躯体或器官异常、肾发育不全或畸形先天性心血管病、肥胖等症状[45];SIX1、EYA1[46]突变致腮耳肾综合征,出现鳃裂瘘管和囊肿、耳发育不良、听力损害、肾脏发育不全或先天萎缩、肾重吸收异常、肾缺如、输尿管反流、重复肾盂输尿管畸形等。甚至多种基因在肿瘤的发生、免疫也发挥重要作用。
4结语
随着基因组学的发展及对各种疾病的致病基因/易感基因的不断研究,部分研究成果如多囊肾、Prade-Willi综合征、Williams综合征、猫眼综合征、肺癌靶基因筛查等多种基因检测已切实进入临床应用阶段,为诊断、治疗和产前筛查提供巨大帮助。对于多发先天性畸形、发育异常、智力低下的患者行基因和染色体筛查往往能有所助益。
包括重复肾盂输尿管畸形在内的泌尿系统先天畸形是多因素致病,CAKUT发病率居新生儿畸形的首位,而相关基因的多样性、表达产物相互作用的复杂性及CAKUT本身的不完全外显率为遗传学研究增加了很大难度。对于重复肾盂输尿管畸形,能用已知的基因突变或CNV等因素合理解释的不足30%。因此,研究基因突变、CNV、环境等多方面因素在重复肾盂输尿管畸形乃至CAKUT疾病谱发病过程中起的作用,并进一步建立系统的风险评估方法对于疾病预防意义重大。
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[本文编辑王昕]
Research Progress on Pathogenic Factors of Duplex Collecting System
L
I Bin,ZHANG Jian-jun,DUAN Wen-yuan,WANG Tong-jian,JIN Xun-bo.Cardiovascular Disease Institute,Jinan Military General Hospital,Jinan 250022,China(LIBin,DUANWen-yuan);Department of Minimally Invasive Urology Center,Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University,Jinan 250021,China(LIBin,ZHANG Jian-jun,JIN Xun-bo)
DUANWen-yuan,E-mail:dwy2115@126.com;WANGTong-jian,E-mail:wangtongjian0425@ 126.com
(2016-02-20)