From Four Essays on Aesthetics：Toward a Global View*

Li Zehou Trans.by LiJane Cauval

Chapter 8.The Stratification of Form and Primitive Sedimentation

Contemporary aesthetics focuses on art and rarely pays attention to metaphysical issues such as the root（essence）of beauty.The aesthetic experience is tested and verified mainly through an analysis of art’s principles and history，from individual psychological responses （aesthetic experience），and from public cultural studies.The public art world is the subject of the sociology of art，which may be a part of aesthetics but not the hard core.For me，these approaches ignore the real problems of aesthetics.However，there is still no common agreement about what art is and which works constitute art.At least we know that artworks are individual pieces of sculpture，painting，music，and other objects that we call art.We also know that many objects we call art—such as the Pyramids in Egypt，bronze vessels of the Yin and Zhou①Ca.1046-256 B.C.E.Yin dynasty.Ca.1600-1050 B.C.E.（also called Shang）.dynasties in China，churches of the Middle Ages in Europe，the statues and mural paintings of Buddha in India and China，and the masks in Africa—were created for religious，ethical，political，or social purposes.Ancient articles of pottery and bronze that have been unearthed were designed for storing and cooking food，not for aesthetic appreciation.The mixture of exhibits in folk and art museums reveal that the line between art and craft is ambiguous.

The fact that the works of the modernist school appear in the infinite variety of fantastic forms expands the meaning of art.For example，one exhibit is a mass of earth and sand with something like shells scattered on it.Another is a frame of scrap iron tubing welded together with colorful light bulbs on it.When a button is pressed the lights flash，giving the impression of a street as one drives through it at night.Marcel Duchamy①French artist（1887-1968），associated with Dadaism and surrealism.made a urinal a work of art by placing it in an exhibition hall.Some individuals smeared themselves with greasepaint and stood in an exhibition hall claiming to be works of art.Such a variety of artistic activity makes it difficult to distinguish art from nonart.

“What are artworks？” is one question and another is，“Do we mean the same thing by art and aesthetic experience，and by artworks and aesthetic objects？”

Whether they are historical relics or modern articles，whether they are churches or furniture，artworks on many occasions do not serve as aesthetic objects.They have other purposes such as buildings to live in or to hold religious services，or as objects in which to store food or to sit upon.Only when they serve as aesthetic objects do they become artworks.

ARTWORKS EXIST ONLY WHEN THEY HAVE BECOME AESTHETIC OBJECTS

So how do objects made by humans，including both the practical and the so-called pure fine arts，come to be aesthetic objects？ In seemingly pure appreciation，traces of the object’s past utility are still sedimented.For example，we experience a sense of religious awe when we appreciate ancient temples and statues of gods.In fact，if artworks become pure beauty by losing their social function，they become perfect decorations.To answer the question of what artworks are，I say that artworks appears and exist only when material objects made by a human being appeal to a person’s aesthetic psychoemotional construction，that is，when these material forms turn into aesthetic objects.

When material objects，including temples，dramas，poetry，and prose，serve various practical or spiritual needs，exhorting people to do good or to develop interpersonal intercourse，patterns of formal experience are present.Even at this stage，the aesthetic，psychological-emotional construction begins to develop an independent function which differentiates it from other psychological constructions through a process of mutual action and reaction with them.Although drama originally was intended for recreation，propaganda，admonishment，or other practical purposes，the intensification of a person’s fate strengthened by dramas’formal structures can offer the person a sense of substantial experience and life impetus.These examples show that the formal structures，which were originally subordinate to practical utility，have become independent aesthetic objects，with their practical utility fading away.In this manner，the so-called pure artworks have come into being.Temples no longer serve merely as places of worship but also as beautiful architecture；paintings no longer serve simply to “perfect civilized teachings and help social relationships”②Zhang Yanyuan’s （815-875）Lidai minghuaji（Record of Famous Painters of All the Dynasties）（Taibei：Yiwen yinshuguan，1965）.English translation based on Susan Bush and Hsio-yen Shih，Early Chinese Texts on Painting （Cambridge：Harvard University Press，1985），49〔translator’s note〕.but also become pleasures in the mind and heart.

However，even these artworks as aesthetic objects retain daily，practical psychical functions.For example，the emotion of worshipping God can coexist with an aesthetic experience.Gothic churches，the fervent will to fight，and universal love all weave into the aesthetic experience of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony.③The Ninth Symphony （1817-1823）of the German composer Ludwig van Beethoven （1770-1827）ends with a celebratory choral setting of FRIEDRICH SCHILLER’s“Ode to Joy.”The same is true of comfortable houses，clothes，and furniture that give pleasure to the senses and mind.Even Bell’s significant forms，①The idea that “Significant Form is the one quality common to all works of visual art，”famously proposed in Art（1914）by the English art critic and aesthetician Clive Bell （1881-1964），was one of the starting points for Li Zehou’s aesthetic inquiry.which have nothing to do with daily practice，and the unique aesthetic emotion of intellectual aristocrats lead people to a mysterious，religious experience.

There has never been truly pure art，only art permeated with more or less worldly emotions.The difference lies，more or less，in the ways of permeation，that is，the mathematical equation or double helix.②In geometry，a spiral consisting of two strands around the same axis（most familiar as the structure of DNA）.Calligraphy differs from film and clothes from poetry but from the viewpoint of aesthetics when these artworks serve as aesthetic objects，they differ only in their relation to the aesthetic psychological construction and in the different proportions and elements of the meta-equation.

In short，the aesthetic psychological construction is important to the humanization of a person’s interior nature because artworks directly produce the aesthetic psychological construction，which in turn creates new artworks.With the interaction and growth between these two processes，art has become an independent cultural classification.Simultaneously，the aesthetic psychological construction has become an important form and aspect of human mentality，which distinguishes itself from the intellectual psychological construction and volitional psychological construction.Therefore，we may explore and grasp the definition of art only by examining the direct effect，influence，and constitution of this human psychological construction.It is only from this approach that we can reasonably distinguish art from nonart.

An object is an artwork if it can arouse emotions（e.g.，sorrow or joy）merely through its formal structure rather than depending on certain sorrowful or joyful images.This independent force or character of the formal structure of an artwork arises from its correspondence to the aesthetic psychological construction that developed in a gradual process of mutual penetration.This means that the force of the formal structure acts on，influences，and constitutes the aesthetic psychological construction.

Therefore，art as the sum of various kinds of artworks signifies the historical constitution of the human aesthetic psychological construction.Just as primitive tools prove that early humans lived on the earth and founded the material life of later generations，so artworks prove that early humans had a spiritual life and founded the spiritual life of their descendants.The legacy of art is deeply sedimented in the human psychological construction，in which lie the value and significance of artistic works as the kind of symbolic production. This system of symbols constitutes and affirms the human psychological construction.

WHAT ARE ARTWORKS？

Now I will expand on my response to the questions，“What are artworks？ ”First，artworks manifest themselves in media made by human beings.In the process of creation，artists direct their illusory world of images and emotions onto specific materials such as stone，bronze，canvas，paper，wood，and even their own bodies，turning them into material objects.It is 〔in〕the process of materialization through continuous correction and alteration that the illusory world is realized and becomes a work of art.For the beholder，without material media，the mages could not affect the human senses，convey their aesthetic significance，and influence generations of people.Without material media，there would be no works of art.

Second，artworks exist only when a person perceiving them has an aesthetic experience.Only when we experience an object aesthetically does it become an aesthetic object，a work of art.There－fore，objects are works of art，whether created for appreciation，practical purposes，or spiritual reasons，as long as they directly appeal to，excite，and arouse an aesthetic experience.Since works of art exist as aesthetic objects only when a person appreciates them，they have only an illusory existence，which differs from the real existence of the artistic media or artistic vehicles.The illusory existence depends both on what is offered objectively by the material and by what is offered by the beholder because the nature of a beholder’s aesthetic experience is relative to the person’s culture，social class，background，character，cultivation，ideals，and previous aesthetic experiences.Scholars often repeat Marx’s comment about a “musical ear，”①Karl Marx， Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844.See Robert C.Tucker ed.，The Marx-Engels Reader〔2d ed.（New York：Norton，1978）〕，89 〔translators’note〕.KARL MARX （1818-1883），German social and political philosopher；in the passage cited，he argues that aesthetic gratification can occur only in the context of“humanized nature.”which implies that things become artworks only when they enter into a person’s aesthetic awareness.Variousand complicated subjective conditions determine if an artistic product can be accepted as an aesthetic object.If a material vehicle，an artistic product，is a necessary condition，then the subjective aesthetic experience is the sufficient condition.Works of art，as aesthetic objects，unite these two conditions.This is the kind of unity between subject and object advocated by Zhu Guangqian，②Western-educated Chinese aesthetician （1897-1986；as a young scholar，Li Zehou criticized his ideas.）which explains the essential character of art.

Now，I wish to turn to the question of beauty in art. The social objectivity of artistic beauty means that artworks，which combine subjective experience and material media，change as aesthetic objects as the media changes.Since the illusory world of artworks exists in the aesthetic experiences of individuals，their common acceptability is possible because of the constitution of the aesthetic psychological construction.Psychological construction occurs because the summation and generalization of various aesthetic experiences develop a substantial character，comparatively independent of any single aesthetic experience，and in this way attain an objective character through sedimentation.This process brings about the materialization of a common psychological construction in human beings.The beauty of art possesses an objective character.However，this social objectivety differs from the social objectivity of the root of beauty.

Therefore，the definition of a work of art must be left open.There are no set conventions or rules for art to follow because materials change and so do subjective experiences.Therefore，there is no use in seeking an eternal and unchangeable definition of art.Jan Mukarosky③Czech structuralist（1891-1975）.said，“Artistic works are expressed in the form of symbols in their internal structure，in their relation with reality and society，and with creators and receivers.”He made a study of artwork in three contexts：their relationships to society，to creators and appreciators，and to different elements in the artwork itself.Studying an artwork from these three aspects gives us a rather complete method.Undoubtedly，we will discover many specific aesthetic and artistic laws if we regard art as a pluralistic phenomenon instead of searching for one definition for all art.We should study and examine art as an organic unity of various mutually interacting elements such as readers，writers，social circumstances，the formal structures of artworks （tone，rhythm，vocabulary，image，and so on），and analyze its history，individual works，artists，styles，and tastes.With the development of science，studies of art will become more scientific，formalized，and specialized.

SOCIOLOGY OF ART AS A STUDY OF AESTHETIC CONSCIOUSNESS

In mainland China，questionsare raised about the sociology of art such as “Does the sociology of art belong to aesthetics，including theory，and history of art，and art criticism？ ”and it if does，“What are the characteristics of art sociology as a meaningful component of aesthetics？”

From the standpoint of philosophical aesthetics，which comprise the subjects of the humanization of nature，the constitution of a new sensuousness，and the psychological-emotional construction，the sociology of art in general focuses only on the external conditions and circumstances of aesthetic experience.However，if it views artworks，art history，and criticism as the presence，history，and appreciation of aesthetic objects，this new approach will keep the sociology of art interacting and collaborating with the study of aesthetic psychology.

Artworks are just the materialization and condensation of human aesthetic psychological processes.The externalized material formations，artworks，provide us with volumes of touchable works that reveal the psychology of the human inner world.Art is a brilliant mirror of the mind and soul.

The history of aesthetic objects is the history of human aesthetic psychological construction；the objects manifest the history of cultures formed by humans and inherited generation after generation.The changes in style and attitudes toward the same artwork reflect the states of mind of people living in different times and societies.A specific social economy，politics，and culture determine and normalize the states of mind of its inhabitants.

Artworks reflecting many different states of mind have circulated widely for centuries.For instance，shi was popular in the Tang Dynasty，ci was in vogue in the Five Dynasties and the Song Dynasty，①Shi 〔in Chinese〕 means poetry in general，but here it refers to a special type of poetry with eight or four lines，each containing five or seven characters，with a strict tonal pattern and rhyme scheme.This type of poetry was highly developed in the Tang Dynasty （618-907），though its origin can be traced back to preceding times.Ci is a type of poetry with strict tonal patterns and rhyme schemes in fixed numbers of lines and words in accordance with the melody it is supposed to attune to.It originated in the Tang Dynasty and fully developed in the Song Dynasty （960-1297）〔translator’s note〕.Five Dynasties：the period in Chinese history between the end of the Tang and beginning of the Song Dynasty.and novels and dramas reached their climax in the middle of the Ming Dynasty.②1368-1644.All were the products of their times and were displaying the isomorphic structure of the materialized states of mind of specific societies in specific times.

Various art trends，such as the rational，romantic，and sentimental reflect the various projections and proportions of different aspects of a people’s aesthetic psychology and display the history of the unceasing enrichment，renewal，expansion，and growth of the human psychological-emotional construction.The study of works of art as the materialized aesthetic experience reveals richer and more varied historical details than does a direct study of psychology.In addition，this new approach to the sociology of art will give impetus and stimulation to the entire discipline of psychology.The fusion and unity of the sociology of art and of the psychology of aesthetics will be the scientific realization of Marx’s philosophical conviction that the formation of the human mind and senses was，and continues to be，a labor of world history，the humanization of nature.This will result in the fundamental principles of the philosophy of beauty，aesthetic psychology，and sociology of art forming an integral unity.

My discussion in this essay—developing from the root of beauty to the aesthetic experience and on to aesthetic objects—tries to reflect the general development of the logical and historical from the abstract to the concrete and from the simple to the complex in the field of beauty and art.I try to show that the root（essence）of beauty relates to the root（essence）of human beings and that the art constructions relate to the emotional constructions.In other words，the origin of beauty connects with the instrumental-social construction and the artwork connects with the psychological-emotional construction.

THREE STRATIFICATIONS OF A WORK OF ART

Now，I will consider the three stratifications of a work of art：form，image，and significance.The former two are analogous to sensation and desire.Of course，we cannot draw a hard and fast lie between any of these stratifications because they mutually penetrate，blend，and overlap and often exist in the same aesthetic object.Furthermore，they also exist in very complicated and crisscross patterns. For example，the stratification of form that appeals to sensation in literary works is vague.A novel appears to us through paper and words but the sensations of a novel are not the sensations of the paper and printed characters；instead，they are manifested in an imaginative presentation.Even the stratification of significance cannot exist by itself because it exists only in the stratification of form-sensation and in the stratification of imagedesire，while simultaneously transcending them.

From the characteristics of these three stratifications，we see that they are nothing but a representation of the theory of humanized nature，the humanization of senses，and the humanization of desires.Nevertheless，I must ask，“Which came first，art or the sense of beauty？” This endless dispute remains unresolved.Some scholars，arguing that art came first，brought evidence from mural paintings in primitive caves.Others，arguing from the study of linear decorations on stone tools made by primitive man，insisted that aesthetic experience came first.

在研究对象上，基层行政管理人员往往一人多角，比如高校辅导员，承担的是双肩挑角色，无论是管理人员身份还是教师身份，都是职业倦怠的高危人群，他们承担的角色越多，引起职业倦怠的原因就越复杂。因此，应进一步针对基层行政管理人员领域进行细化研究，依据他们所在的不同职能部门、担任的岗位和从事的工作性质进行分类，在此基础上进行相应的干预策略。

Although I take the latter stand，I do not base my arguments on the linear decorations found on articles such as baskets and early art works or from the geometrical lines that were abstracted from realistic images of animals.I believe，as I have said in parts 1 and 2，①That is，the first two parts of the book from which this selection is taken，Four Essays on Aesthetics.the earliest aesthetic experi－ences arose from labor through making and using tools.Linear patterns followed certain orders and laws，such as repetition，overlapping，symmetry，and balance，and became recognized as beautiful because primitive humans experienced，familiarized themselves with，and grasped these orders of nature and laws of form through human productive activities.Primitive sedimentation was the most important process that directed these changes and made them follow certain laws.

PRIMITIVE SEDIMENTATION

What is primitive sedimentation？It is the most fundamental sedimentation，formed from the process of material labor.Through a long process of labor，primitive humans employed aspects of the natural order，such as rhythm and sequence，and，in doing so，brought objective regularity and subjective purposiveness into a new unity.This new unity brought forth the earliest forms of beauty and aesthetic experience.In other words，through labor humans endowed the material world with forms which，although originally found in nature itself，began to develop an independent nature through the application of humans’abstractive faculty.Through the process of social labor production humans created the forms of beauty.

The earliest awareness of beauty arose from the human subjective emotions and sensations，which corresponded to the objective forms of beauty.This correspondence is the product of sedimentation.As humans began to realize the laws of nature to create objects of beauty，their own senses and emotions formed an isomorphic correspondence with these external objects.Animals also have isomorphic correspondence，but humans differ from animals because they developed theirs through the long process of tool-using productive activity and by imbuing it with sociality.These social activities greatly extended the structures of isomorphic correspondence，and it is these dynamic structures of correspondence that I call primitive sedimentation.

At first，humans produced very simple tools—such as stone artifacts and bows and arrows—to improve their chances of survival.As they were engaged in these activities of making and using tools，they began to comprehend，imagine，understand，and become sensitive to the orders of nature.When a human achieved certain goals in the process of laboring （reforming the objective world），the regularity and purposiveness of the process would unite with the human sensuous construction （the activity of labor）to produce feelings of pleasure.It is the pleasure derived from this process that is the pleasure of the earliest aesthetic experience.Although there may have been vague understandings，imaginings and intentions in the experience，sensation dominated.I call this the prehistory of humans’ spiritual world or the process of primitive sedimentation.

At this primitive stage of sedimentation，the aesthetic psychological construction of humans was being formed.It was during the primitive productive practice that humans first experienced aesthetic pleasure from sensing the unity of their internal mentality and the laws of the external world.Because of these earliest processes and pleasures，I conclude that the feeling for beauty arose before our awareness of art.

Does any primitive sedimentation remain in the aesthetic experience of people，now that the productive activities are so different from those of primitive times？Our understanding of natural laws is far greater that it was thousands of years ago and the relation between aesthetic experience and productive labor is more complex.However，the fundamental relations，such as balance，symmetry，proportion，and rhythm in works of art，remains，although the concrete forms and laws are much more complicated and varied than during prehistoric times.These relationships are still the products of the accumulations of primitive sedimentations，de－prived from the activities of social productive practice in daily life.

For example，there is an essential difference between a human’s sense of space and time derived from today’s practical activities and that of primitive human beings.Primitive humans in the remote past had a sense of space and time similar to and as vague as that of children today.Primitive humans imagined time to be an uninterrupted sheet of expansion.As society progressed，the primary divisions of time appeared.At first，people’s sense of space and time focused on specific events and content.For example，time meant seasons and space meant the directions of east，west，south，and north with no abstract or general concept of time or space.The views of space and time during agricultural，industrial，and our current information societies differ greatly and each period exerted its influence on the form and content of art.The feeling for different rhythms manifests the differences.Obviously，the rhythm in an agricultural society differs from that of the present information society.An individual sensation does not constitute the real character of a person’s sense of space and time because character reflects the practice in society.This is equally true of our other senses，which have become what they are because of primitive sedimentation and express themselves in the sensory stratification of artworks.

Why is it that the different peoples in different times produced different machinery and architecture？Why is it that the technological modeling and design patterns of ancient times are so elaborate and complicated，while those of modern times so lucid and succinct？It must be true that small-scale agricultural production and largescale industrial production produce great differences in design.Why is it that the fast rhythms，streams of consciousness，and vast expanses of space and time，which often appear in contemporary movies，make one feel full of energy？It must be that fast rhythms in time and vast space express the advent of an age of outer space navigation and of an information society.All of the above belong to the category of primitive sedimentation in the sensory stratification of art forms，mainly the perceptual sedimentation of history and society in the external forms of art.

THE APPEAL OF AN ARTWROK IS DEPENDENT UPON ITS MEDIUM

Although critically important，primitive sedimentation is only one component of the formal stratification of artworks.The relationship of the object’s medium to the psychological construction of the subject affects the appeal of artworks.For example，a statue made of black，rough bronze or the same figure made of white smooth marble will produce different impressions.The size of artworks is also important.When you enter a Christian cathedral，its high and broad interior will immediately give you a sense of awe.A small image of the Buddha does not convey Buddha’s boundless supernatural power in the way a huge，golden statue does.

In literary works，the sound of the words and the rhythm of the sentences influence the quality of the aesthetic experience.Chinese poets pay special attention to the tones①In all forms of the Chinese language，different tones distinguish words that are otherwise pronounced alike （e.g.，Mandarin has four tones，including“high”and “falling”）.of characters.Stories of Chinese poets reveal the difficulty of choosing between nong （dense）and nao（sprightly）to describe the sense of spring and between tui （push）and qiao（knock）to open the gate.②Li refers to two poems.Nong and nao refers to Song Qi’s（998-1061）poem “The Spring of the Jade Towel，”wherein is a famous line：“The sense of spring is sprightly on the pink twigs of apricot trees.”Nao （sprightly），although an unusual word in this context because this word also means “noisy，” is generally regarded by Chinese critics as much better than a common word，say，nong（dense）.Tui and qiao refers to Jiao Dao’s （779-843）poem，“To Li Ningyou’s House，”in which he wrote：“Birds are sleeping on trees by a pool，/A monk is knocking on the gate under the moon.”A story in connection with these two lines is that when Jia Dao，a common scholar，was riding on a donkey，concentrating on these two lines，and hesitating between “knocking” and“pushing，”he collided with the servants of a high-ranking official，Han Yu （768-824），who was also a great poet and writer.It was a big offense according to the law at that time，but after inquiring the cause，Han did not punish Jia；on the contrary，he helped him to decide to use“knocking，” and henceforth took Jia as a friend.The main reason is that both words（nao，qiao）are correct，but when the poem is read aloud the sounds and tones differ，and the one selected is connected with the appropriate sensation 〔translators’note〕.The connection be－tween high pitch and brightness and between low pitch and darkness indicate a rich and complicated isomorphic correspondence betweens sensation and emotion，as well as among other elements of sensation aroused by artistic forms.Hence，Chinese poets and prose writers emphasize the importance of reading their works aloud for the rhythm，tempo，and melody，all of which are manifested in the sound of reading，the sensation.

Some examples from Chinese literature exhibit the kinds of formal stratification that appeal to readers’senses.There is the dignity of the fiveregulated poetry （a form of poetry with eight lines，each consisting of five characters），the fluidity of seven-regulated poetry （a form of poetry with eight lines，each consisting of seven characters），the heaviness of four-line poetry，the grandiosity of ancient-style poetry （a form of poetry longer than the above-mentioned ones and with fewer restrictions），the symmetry of rhythmical prose with parallelism，the smoothness of prose without parallelism，the machismo of Han Yu’s prose，the gentleness of Ouyang Xiu’s （1007-1072）prose，the terseness of Wang Anshi’s （1021-1086）prose，and the boundless expansion of Su Shi’s （1036-1101）prose.①Famous Chinese literary figures，each with a distinctive prose style.Therefore，people experience the beautiful forms of literary works not thorough logical thinking but through sensation and through literary qi（vital force）.②Literally，qi means“air”or“breath.”In Chinese philosophy，it refers to the vital energy or material force in both humans and the universe（much like the classical Greek idea of pneuma）.In aesthetics，it refers to the totality of creative force evinced by an artist，manifested in a piece of artwork，and experienced by a beholder or reader.This force comes alive and apparent in the process of reading aloud literary works，because the addition of the auditory to the visual intensifies the experience.In the earliest stages of learning，Chinese painters and calligraphers emphasized the importance of imitating works of the masters because by doing so，students experience the feel of the brush strokes used by the master and directly familiarized themselves with the beautiful forms that are the sensory formal stratifications of art.

In traditional China，many branches of learning discussed the importance of qi in philosophy and in traditional Chinese medicine as well as in literature and art.It is very difficult to know whether qi is material or spiritual or both，but is a life force that appeals to sensuousness.Cao Pi③Founding emperor of Wei Dynasty （220-280）and an influential poet and critic.In his most famous critical writing，“A Discourse on Literature，” Cao posited the aesthetic concept of wenqi（literary pneuma），which became a foundational idea in Chinese literary criticism and aesthetics.（187-226）wrote:

The main point of literary works is qi，which may be strong or feeble in a fixed mold and cannot be changed by human effort.Take playing wind instruments as an example：The rules of melody，tempos，and rhythm may be the same，but the exertion of qi 〔vital force，but also breath or wind〕is different，and thus ingenuity or clumsiness is distinguished.Such qi cannot be handed down，even from father to son or from the elder to the younger.①Cao Pi，“A Discourse on Literature （Lun Wen），” in Stephen Owns，An Anthology of Chinese Literature：Beginnings to 1911 （New York：Norton，1996，361 〔translators’note〕）.

Qi refers to human physiology as well as to material stuff and structure.In literary works，it refers to morphology and syntax，including the literary qi of Han Yu，Ouyang Xiu，Wang Anshi，and Su Shi.However，a person’s physiological force requires a human body for expression.Qi（its static state is called shi or impetus）comes from an artwork’s formal structure，that is，its composition，lines，and proportion.The blank spaces in Chinese painting and emotional-function words in traditional Chinese prose directly influence a person’s mind.②In Chinese painting，blank space is often pregnant with implications.Similarly，function words express no explicity meaning but convey subtle emotions and sensibilities.The influence of this qi is much more powerful than that which comes from its content.It arouses and excites a person’s feelings，sensations，emotions，and vitality immediately without the mediation of understanding and imagination.

THE GENIUS OF ARTISTS LIES IN THE USE OF FORM

The genius of an artist lies in the creation of a brand new sensuous world by the formal stratification of art.As Goethe③Johann Wolfgang von Goethe （1749-1832），German poet，dramatist，novelist，and scientist.put it，everybody can see the content of artworks，an understanding mind can comprehend their implied significance，but for most people，the form is a mystery.The emergence of outstanding artworks and innovation does not necessarily mean a breakthrough in content；it may arise from a variation in the formal and sensuous stratification.This leads to a variation in aesthetic experience as well as in genuine artistic creation.Although the breakthrough or creation arises from the form，the artwork may still be permeated with rich and substantial social content.Rudolf Arnheim④German-born American art theorist and perceptual psychologist（1904-2007）.emphasized that content expressed by sensuous form produce an isomorphic structure corresponding to mental feeling and engendering moving force.In our daily life，putting the palms together signifies devotion，making a deep bow expresses respect，raising one’s head or lowering it displays respectively arrogance or humility.People with different cultural backgrounds and different languages understand the meaning of such gestures and postures of sensuous forms.One of the functions of art is to discover，organize，and create the structural forms universally owned by everybody and to imbue the sensuous forms with significance.

The presence，development，and transformation of the perceptual formal stratification of artworks are just the interfusion of a person’s physiological，historical，and social functions that occur in sensation through sense organs.These constitute one aspect of the world of art as it cultivates human nature and remolds a person’s mind and heart.One reason that photography can never take the place of representative paintings is that the lines，colors，and compositions drawn by a human hand are not the same as those of natural things.In painting，there are shapes and shadings that derive from a person’s technique，which，in some senses，are far superior to natural forms.The colors in the paintings of Qi Baishi and Henri Matisse⑤French painter and sculptor （1869-1954）.Qi Baishi（1864-1957），Chinesepainterfamousforhiswatercolors.are not the classical ones that “follow the categories〔of the object〕in applying colors，”⑥Li quotes from Xie He’s （c.500）Six Canons.See Jianping Gao，The Expressive Act in Chinese Art：From Calligraphy to Painting（Stockholm：Almqvist&Wiksell International，1996），127 〔translators’note〕.nor are they natural colors；rather，they are emancipated colors，the free expression of a person.These colors are deeply significant.They manifest human uniqueness and the ability of a human to empower a painting，its composition，lines，colors，proportions，and empty spaces with his or her special aesthetic experience.

STRATIFICATION OF FORM IN ARTWORKS CORRESPONDS TO THE HUMANIZATION OF A PERSON’S SENSATION

In summary，the formal stratification of artworks extends itself，based on primitive sedimentation，in two directions.In one direction，the subjective efforts of a creator’s and beholder’s body and mind approaches，tallies with，and forms isomorphic structures according to the rhythm of nature.This is the naturalization of the human manifested not only in physical activities such as Chinese qigong，taiji，and practice for longevity，①Different kinds of Chinese exercises for body-mind selfcultivation：each has its distinct style and rationale，but all are predicated on the nurturing of the human qi（life force or vital energy）.but also in the formal stratification of artworks，including qi（vital force）and bone-strength.These do not express natural physiology，but result from human self-cultivation over long periods.In theory，from Mencius’②Chinese Confucian philosopher（Meng-tzu，ca.371-ca.289 B.C.E.）.cultivating qi to guqi（literally means bone-breath，but actually means something near noble vitality），in later times it takes great effort to get the formal stratification of artworks to tally with the rhythm of the universe and thereby to form an isomorphic structure.③Zehou Li and Liu Gangji’s The History of Chinese Aesthetics（vol.2）provides a detailed discussion of qi（vital force）and gu （bone）.Jianping Gao’s The Expressive Act in Chinese Art gives an explanation of gu and Xie He’s gufa yongbi after commenting on Susan Bush，Michael Sullican，WilliamAcker，Wen C.Fong，Zehou Li，and Liu Gangji’s relevant views.See The Expressive Act in Chinese Art，176-79 〔translator’s note〕.In Chinese literary works and arts，the emphasis is to embody the Way，exemplified by sayings such as“skill promoting to the Way，”④A term from Zhuangzi，“The Secret of Caring for Life，”in which the Cook answers to the King’s praise by saying“What I care about is the Way，which goes beyond skill.”See Burton Watson，trans.，The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu （New York：Colombia University Press，1978），50 〔translators’note〕.“uncanny workmanship，”and “as if created by nature，though made by man.”Only through long periods of highly arduous self-cultivation can a person participate in the work of creation with nature.A vast amount of literary data about Chinese artworks testifies both to the difficulty and to the pleasure of achieving this goal.

The other direction in which the formal stratification extends itself refers to the ever-changing objects，events，and relationships that reflect the trends of different times and societies.These features refer to the formal variations，which are only more or less related to the primitive sedimentation.Earlier，I mentioned Worringer’s⑤Wilhelm Worringer（1881-1965），German art historian.idea that abstract modern art relates to modern life and social psychology.Rene Wellek compares the relationship between various styles and social psychology.⑥See Rene Wellek and Austin Warren，Theory of Literature （New York：HarcourtBrace Jovanovich，1977〔translators’note〕.Wellek （1903-1995），Czech-born American literary theorist and historian.Heinrich Wolfflin⑦Swiss art critic（1864-1945）.shows the different styles of plastic art created in the Renaissance and those created in the Baroque period.The Renaissance is static，distinct，formal，and rational；the Baroque is dynamic，unclear，picturesque，and sensuous.The former appeared in a time of happiness and prosperity，and the latter in a time of depression and solitude.⑧Heinrich Wolfflin，Principles of Art History：The Problem of the Development of Style in Later Art，trans.M.D，Hottinger （New York：Dover Publications，1950）〔translators’note〕.Baroque art，which developed in Europe in the 17th century，is more dramatic and emotional than that of the Renaissance （14th-17th centuries），which usually displays a more restrained classicism.The fact that different historical periods exhibit different styles and forms is the consequence of differing psychological demands，which in turn are affected by the social political life of the time.

How can we account for the transformations in art forms？In traditional Chinese literature，why did the five-character-a-line poetry turn into seven-character-a-line poetry，and latter into ci，the uneven-numbered-character poetry？What is the difference among the artistic atmospheres produced by shi，ci，and qu？①Qu is a form of poetry that gained popularity during the Yuan Dynasty （1271-1368），a dynasty ruled by the Mongolians.Qu can have two forms one is in the form of short poetry presented independently and other is a part of a much larger opera 〔translators’note〕.Why is it that in Chinese landscape painting the employment of dense blue and green colors turned into that of inkwash？In addition to detailed drawings of real objects by fine brushwork，why is there the technique of splash-ink？These seem to be changes in the external forms，but in reality，they are deeply imbedded in human psychology and society.For instance，shi and ci demand implicitness，but qu puts stress on explicitness and liveliness.Qu took the place of ci because，under the oppression of the Yuan Dynasty（Mongolians），intellectuals held a very low social position.In addition，owing to the weakening of Confucian teachers of gentleness and mildness，②Confucianism s the traditional moral and religious system of China，based on the sayings attributed to the sage known as Confucius （K’ong Fu-tzu，551-479 B.C.E.）and the commentaries on them.the intellectuals expressed their complaints and indignation through the form of qu without hesitancy or reserve.In short，the socialpolitical culture appeals to sensation through the formal stratification of art and constitutes the social psychology of a specific time.Conversely，the social psychology of the time，congealed and expressed in the formal stratification of sensation，passes from generation to generation and exerts unceasing and decisive influences on human psychology and sensation.This constitutes the tradition of formal stratification of artworks.

Gombrich’s③Ernst Hans Josef Gombrich （1909-2001），Austrianborn British art historian；his The Story of Art（1950）is a very popular introduction to the visual arts.study of the history of fine arts demonstrates that the formal sensation of art relates to its historical and social context and later generations continue the inheritance of the former.Because of the many different social arrangements，religions，ethics，politics，and commerce，societies in different times and places produce different patterns of rhythm，meter，proportion，and balance in the sensuous stratification of art forms.Nevertheless，within these variances lies something inheritable，continual，and conventional.As a result，the history of artistic style is the history of the sensuous psychology of individual cultures as well as that of human beings.

This history retains the primitive sedimentation，which is the basis of the extension toward nature，to form an isomorphic structure in accordance with the universal laws of nature，as well as with social life and ideology.These aspects—primitive sedimentation，nature，and society—intermingle and interact in intricate patterns and，in doing so，form a succession of magnificent aesthetic products.The joint efforts of the three forces constitute the root of art，which is the objective existence of the materialized substance of the human mind and emotion.Herein lies the philosophical and aesthetic mystery of the history of artistic style.

1989，2006