Intuitive Knowledge and Responsibility: A Review of Wang Yangming’s Thought on Responsibility Ethics

Tu Keguo

Abstract： Wang Yangmings philosophy of the mind is founded on his doctrine of intuitive knowledge， by which he was in fact referring to the moral mind （or conscience）. Though he did not give a philosophical account of the relationship between the moral mind and responsibility at a reflective， rational level， his doctrine of intuitive knowledge nevertheless touches upon their relevance to each other. Therefore， a study of Wang Yangmings thought on the two concepts may provide intellectual resources for studying the contemporary Confucian ethics of responsibility. The present paper attempts to examine the relationship between Wangs philosophy of the mind and responsibility from three aspects： the learning of the moral mind versus responsibility ethics， intuitive knowledge as the original substance versus responsibility ethics， and the gongfu of intuitive knowledge versus responsibility ethics.

Keywords： Wang Yangming， intuitive knowledge， responsibility， ethics

Philosophers have argued that intuitive knowledge （liangzhi 良知）， the moral mind or conscience （liangxin 良心）， and the sense of responsibility are inseparably linked. Hegel in his Philosophy of Right devoted a special chapter to topics of the good and conscience， which he differentiated into the formal and true conscience according to its moral and ethical dimensions. Furthermore， he noted in his remark on section 137：

Conscience is the expression of the absolute title of subjective self-consciousness to know in itself and from within itself what is right and obligatory， to give recognition only to what it thus knows as good， and at the same time to maintain that whatever in this way it knows and wills is in truth right and obligatory.

Friedrich Paulsen （1846–1908） in his System of Ethics also devoted a separate chapter to “Duty and Conscience” （chapter 5）， in which he gave this definition： “We call that phase of our nature which opposes inclination and manifests itself in the feeling of obligation and duty， conscience.” In Marxist Ethics， edited by A. I. Titarenko （1932–1993）， conscience is defined as one of the oldest and most hidden individual modulators for human conduct， and together with ones sense of duty， of self-honor and of self-dignity， conscience enables one to realize ones moral obligations or commitments to oneself as a moral agent， as well as to others and to society as a whole.

The Learning of the Moral Mind and Responsibility Ethics

[Refer to page 71 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]

Wang Yangmings 王阳明 （1472–1528， a.k.a. Wang Shouren 王守仁） philosophy of the mind not only defines the intention of the mind or heart-mind （xin 心）， but also explores its relatedness to human nature （xing 性）， affairs （shi 事）， things （wu 物）， principles （li 理）， and actions （xing 行）. From these， he advanced his theories on mind–nature， mind–affair， mind–thing， mind–principle， as well as on knowing （zhi 知） and acting， as the varied dimensions of his mind philosophy， which cannot be isolated from the study of responsibility ethics.

The Mind–Nature Theory and Responsibility [71]

Wang Yangming held that mind， human nature， and principle form a unity， by which he not only transformed the Cheng–Zhu assertion of “nature being principle” （性即理） into “mind being principle” （心即理）， but also advanced the idea of observing human nature to illuminate principles. Wang Yangming believed that the nature that rules the body is mind， saying，

Benevolence （ren 仁）， righteousness （yi 義）， ritual propriety （li 礼）， and wisdom （zhi 智） are by nature characteristic of it; quick apprehension， clear discrimination， far-reaching intelligence， and all-embracing knowledge are native to it. Pleasure， anger， sorrow， and joy are the feelings of this nature; selfish desire and ceremoniousness are things that obscure it.

All these are the diverse manifestations of a unified nature. He objected to the dichotomy of Heaven-endowed nature （天命之性） and nature of physical endowment （气质之性） as cherished by some Song–Ming Neo-Confucians， but instead advocated a theory of responsibility concerning the mind–nature， calling for exerting ones mind to the utmost and knowing ones nature （尽心知性）， and honoring ones moral nature （尊德性）.

With respect to exerting ones mind to the utmost and knowing ones nature， Wang Yangming believed that it depends on ones natural endowments and degree of enlightenment， and therefore the affairs that one is capable of or ought to take on should be different from person to person. Granting some bias due to his doctrine， Wang Yangmings statement is nonetheless justified， for the assertion goes well with a principle of responsibility ethics that demands correspondence between ability and responsibility. In his view， there is a difference between the degree of effort and attainment of exerting the mind to the utmost and that of merely preserving the mind. As mind arises from the same origin as does ones nature， to exert ones mind to the utmost is commensurate to fully developing ones potential nature. In contrast， preserving ones mind allows one to leave some of it undeveloped， so that it is still not entirely pure. The same disparity applies to the difference between knowing Heaven and serving Heaven：

Knowing Heaven is the same as knowing the affairs of a district or a county， which is what the titles prefect and magistrate mean. It is a matter within ones own function， and it means that one in his or her moral character has already become one with Heaven. Serving Heaven， on the other hand， is like the serving of the parents by children and the serving of the ruler by the minister. It must be done seriously and reverently to please them if it is to be perfect. Even then， one is still separated from Heaven. This is the difference between a sage [who exerts the mind to the utmost and knows Heaven] and the worthies [who preserve their minds and serve Heaven].

As a general requirement of human conduct， to honor ones moral nature means to make it an obligatory moral duty for one to constantly cultivate the moral virtues and maximize ones moral potential. Wang Yangming spoke more than once of transforming knowledge into moral nature， emphasizing the necessity to shift from knowing good and evil to doing good and stopping evil. He advocated the mind， learning， and doctrines of the sage， urging people to meet their moral duty by fulfilling the Five Constant Virtues （benevolence， righteousness， ritual propriety， wisdom， and faithfulness）.

The Mind–Thing Theory and Commitment [72]

When discussing some key concepts of self-cultivation in the Great Learning， such as cultivation of personal life （xiushen 修身）， rectification of the mind （zhengxin 正心）， sincerity of the will （chengyi 誠意），i extension of knowledge （zhizhi 致知）， and investigation of things （gewu 格物）， Wang Yangming gave his definition of knowledge with a generalization of the moral values of Confucian ethics. He said， “I understand ge 格 as correction， and wu 物 as affairs. . . . The extension of knowledge is attained by ge with practical affairs. If one intends to do good， one should do it with the affair; if one intends to repel evil， one just has to practice it in the actual affair.” Generally speaking， ones responsibility lies with the affair that falls under ones duty. That is why Wang Yangming reduced all things under Heaven to affairs， but he was clearly biased by internalizing and subjectivizing every kind of affair of responsibility. However， he was also justified in that subjectivizing and internalizing the moral affairs helps to enhance the knowledge， understanding， recognition， and identification of ones moral duty， and to establish ones awareness of obligation and sense of duty. In return， the internalized sense of responsibility could clarify human acts with its function of restraining or compelling.

Different from Zhu Xi 朱熹 （1130–1200）， who took the investigation of things as the usual acquisition of knowledge by investigating natural things， Wang Yangming contended that the object of investigation was human affairs. In his view， the investigators should turn to their own minds， and it would be realized that everyone has the potential to become a sage. Although his interpretation of the investigation of things denies the justification of human knowledge of the thing-in-itself or objective existence， it affirms the obligatory duty for humans to engage in the investigation of things to extend knowledge as well as their commitments to the pursuit of becoming sages and worthies.

The Mind–Principle Theory and Ethical Principles [73]

Wang Yangming， drawing on Lu Xiangshans 陸象山 （1139–1193， a.k.a. Lu Jiuyuan 陆九渊） idea of “mind being principle，” promoted the theories that mind and principle are one and that the mind rules over principles. He said，

The principles of things are not to be found external to the mind. . . . The mind in its original character is nature， and nature is principles. Since the mind has the experience of being filial， there is a principle of filial piety. If the mind lacks filial piety， there is no principle of filial piety. Since the mind has the experience of being loyal to the prince， there is a principle of loyalty. Without a mind that is loyal to the prince there can be no principle of loyalty. Are these principles external to the mind？

Wang Yangming took the mind and principles as a unity， where the mind is noumenal and principles phenomenal; he defined nature， filial piety to parents， and loyalty to the monarch as the substance of mind. Conversely， he also revealed the functional modes of principles as being inseparable from the mind， and with which they form an indiscriminate unity.

A closer examination of his unitary account of the mind and principles shows that his theory contains two orientations for development.

First is an epistemological orientation toward moral obligations. Wang Yangming made this point clear， saying， “The controlling power of the body is the mind. The mind originates the will， and the nature of the will is knowledge. Wherever the will is， we have a thing.” He adapted passages from the Great Learning—investigating things， extending knowledge， rectifying the mind， and making the will sincere—and went as far as to reverse the order of wording， to give a subjectivized account of the process and to bring into prominent focus the role of will. Mediated by the will， knowledge is connected to practical affairs and things. This is a reversal of the epistemological order as stated in the Great Learning， that is， proceeding from the investigation of things to the extension of knowledge， to rectification of the mind， and to making the will sincere. To the contrary， he formulated a chain of logic going in the opposite direction， from the internal to the external： knowledge gives rise to the will which prompts the agent to deal with affairs and outside things. Hence his idealist thought， where the knowledge and will of the subject become the causal determinants of affairs and things， and ones sense of responsibility determines ones performance of duty.

A Responsibility Ethics Based on Mind as the Substance  [75]

Wang Yangmings theory of mind as the substance largely consists of two components.

The first of these is that the mind as the original substance consists of and manifests the original nature， that is， mind- or heart-in-itself. Wang Yangming made profuse use of the term xin zhi benti 心之本体 （the original substance or nature of mind）， which occurs more than thirty times in the Instructions for Practical Life [传习录] alone. All these elaborations were made precisely to establish the moral sacredness and supremacy of the mind. From the perspective of Confucian responsibility ethics， the mind as an inclusive and superordinate concept has as its basic character other qualities such as good， sincerity， joy， knowledge， and calmness. Therefore， if one is to fulfill the respective responsibilities for these qualities， one must have met the general responsibility for rectification of the mind， which guarantees the soundness of the cognitive subjects mental faculty and moral awareness， for everything else depends on the reliability of mind as the original substance. In relation to xin zhi benti， one must perform ones moral responsibility by restoring the original mind， knowing the mind， and reaching a perfect state of open-mindedness and perfect impartiality （廓然大公）， so as to inspire the good function of mind. Moreover， building a spiritual realm with gongfu of the mind， one can lay firm ground for the moral foundations of ones commitment to responsibilities.

As for the other component， Wang Yangming often spoke of the mind as xinti 心體 （mind as the substance） for short， when it serves as the residence or original substance of other mental faculties， which also occurs in over thirty places in the Instructions for Practical Life alone. In his view， the mind is the moral foundation or origin of virtue that serves to determine human moral values. “The controlling power of the body is the mind. The mind originates the idea， and the nature of the idea is knowledge. Wherever the idea is， we have a thing.” “The will arises only when there is knowledge， and without the latter there can be no will.” According to the logic of his thought， the mind is the agent of will， and that is why Wang repeatedly emphasized the necessity of “working on mind as the substance，” so as to sharpen peoples sense of moral responsibility.

The Basis of Extending Innate Knowledge and Responsibility [76]

Borrowing the term liangzhi 良知 from Mencius， Wang Yangming extended the zhi 知 （knowing） faculty of the mind into a virtue privileged over other faculties. He particularly elaborated on the doctrine of intuitive knowledge and elevated the concept to a lofty stature. Based on his theories of mind or its knowing faculty as the substance， Wang Yangming went on to explain the role and function of innate knowledge. Finally， he formulated a theory of moral responsibility based on his theory of intuitive knowledge as the substance from various psychological perspectives on the human mind.

First， intuitive knowledge endows the human with an inborn moral intuition that tells good from evil.

Knowledge is native to the mind; the mind naturally is able to know. When it perceives the parents it naturally knows what filial piety is; when it perceives the elder brother it naturally knows what respectfulness is; when it sees a child fall into a well it naturally knows what commiseration is. This is intuitive knowledge of the good， and is not attained through external investigation.

Since intuitive knowledge underlies the possibility and motivation of such ethical behavior as filial piety to parents and respect for elders， it also constitutes peoples moral sense of duty that compels them with an ethic of responsibility to extend intuitive knowledge. Different from the Cheng–Zhu School， which advocated the mind of compassion （benevolent mind）， Wang Yangming emphasized the intuitive feeling of approval or disapproval or sense of right and wrong. He spoke of intuitive knowledge on many occasions as an a priori moral sense and intuitive moral judgment. For instance， “The mind that distinguishes between right and wrong knows without anxious thought and reflection， and acts without having learned. This is what is meant by the intuitive faculty.”

Second， intuitive knowledge is a morally intuitive faculty that can affect human feelings. Wang Yangming noted that intuitive knowledge is closely connected to feelings， and though the intuitive knowledge of the good is not tied to feelings of joy， anger， sorrow， or fear， these are not outside the influence of the intuitive faculty. Meanwhile， it is permissible to identify the state of being cautious and apprehensive with intuitive knowledge. He was positive that innate knowledge affects human feelings. Wang also underscored the point that doing things and extending intuitive knowledge should not be viewed as separate affairs， for the goal of the extension of the innate knowledge of the good is nothing other than to fulfill ones inner emotive needs. As regards its moral aspect， intuitive knowledge is related to ones emotional capacity for sincerity and sympathy by the intuitive faculty：

Intuitive knowledge is the embodiment of natural law （Heaven-given principles）. It is quite naturally the point of clear realization of moral sense. The place of manifestation is to be found in true sincerity and commiseration. This is its original character. Thus， the development of the sincerity and sympathetic feeling of the intuitive faculty when applied to serving ones parents is filial piety; when applied to respecting and obeying the elder brother， denotes acting as a young brother should; and when applied to serving the prince， is loyalty.

Ones moral mind and intuitive knowledge provide him or her with ethical judgment in exercising self-restraint， self-discipline， and self-decision. Thus， it is characteristic of the self-consciousness of the rational faculty of mind. In addition， however， it also incorporates the senses of duty， honor， and dignity， and so it constitutes a unity with human moral emotion and sensibility that dwell in self-consciousness.

Third， intuitive knowledge is an a priori moral consciousness that determines intentional ethics. When an intentional will is set in motion， the corresponding sense of duty arise.

The devotees of stupid abstraction and empty tranquility are unable to investigate the fundamental principles of the mind， as things and affairs are experienced. Thus what they attain is not the original intuitive knowledge of good. They lose or set aside their five human relationships. That they continually make use of vacuity and tranquility shows that because they desire these， they cannot govern home， state， or empire. Does anyone say that the learning of the sages， which inculcates thorough investigation of principles and the exhausting of ones mental constitution， also has this defect？ The mind is lord of the person （body）. Moreover， the abstract and pure intelligence and clear realization of the mind are the original intuitive knowledge of good. When this intuitive faculty with its abstract and pure intelligence and clear realization is influenced and active， it is called will.

The Great Learning states， “Those who wished to rectify their minds would first make their wills sincere. Those who wished to make their wills sincere would first extend their knowledge. The extension of knowledge consists in the investigation of things.” Due to his Confucian beliefs concerning ethics in general， Wang Yangming reinterpreted the term zhi from the Great Learning into his own term liangzhi and combined it with the concept zhengxin 正心 （rectification of the mind）， and henceforth highlighted the compelling and monitoring function of original knowledge in the mind over the will. With intuitive knowledge as the guarantee of moral principles， he could discuss practical tasks （responsibilities， actually）， like caring for the comfort of parents in winter and summer and waiting upon them， to be accomplished appropriately with sincerity. By virtue of intuitive knowledge， he put forward the human responsibility to extend intuitive knowledge as well as to conform to the constant virtues and ethical principles.

Approaches for Extending Intuitive Knowledge [78]

Wang Yangming not only put forward a general responsibility for extending ones intuitive knowledge， but also proposed the routes， methods， and practice.

First， the importance of knowing how to extend ones intuitive knowledge. According to Wang Yangming， common men and women are like the sage in the matter of intuitive knowledge of the good and native ability to execute the good. But the sage is able to extend his intuitive knowledge to the utmost， while common men and women are not able to do so. It is not that the sage does not merely engage in learning the rites and the changes of circumstances， but that the sage concentrates on developing the intuitive faculty through investigating the principles of Heaven and righteousness in the experiences of the mind as influenced by mutual intercourse.

Second， the ability to preserve and nourish ones innate knowledge. In Wang Yangmings view， intuitive knowledge constitutes the fundamental nature of the mind， and it pervades and enlightens whatever it comes in contact with. Therefore， one must be responsible for preserving and nurturing this intuitive faculty for knowing the true and illuminating the faculty for knowing the good.

Third， to remove obscuration of the mind by learning. As the original mind is in the state of equilibrium before feelings or passions are aroused， so there is no original mind that is not originally good. However， the mind is easily obscured when it is tarnished by desires for material gain， and it is therefore necessary to remove the obscurity with learning， so that intuitive knowledge can be revealed in its original splendor.

Fourth， the importance of moral knowledge. As for gongfu of moral cultivation by extending intuitive knowledge and responsibility， Wang Yangming expounded on knowledge of the virtuous nature to underscore the moral aspect of ones responsibility. Though knowledge of moral virtues alone does not equal intuitive knowledge， it represents the essential core values of the concept. He noted that， though the intuitive knowledge of the good does not come from experiences， all experiences are functions of the intuitive faculty. For this reason， the intuitive faculty does not rest with merely seeing and hearing， nor does it separate itself from them. Furthermore， apart from the intuitive faculty there is no knowledge. For this reason， extending intuitive knowledge to the utmost is the fundamental principle of learning. Hence the primary task is to extend to the utmost ones innate knowledge that embodies ones moral nature.

Fifth， to seek knowledge true to ones moral nature （zhenzhi 真知）， by which Wang Yangming means the inborn human faculty of an a priori nature， or an inner intelligence as ones intuitive knowledge that is true to ones instinctive moral and affective judgment， or the usual concept of correct， in-depth， or accurate cognition of things by experience. He held that the gongfu of learning should be sought in the sincerity of a true mind. One must be free from any utilitarian motives in doing so and do all one can to fulfill ones intuitive act. When one feels reconciliation with the conscience， then one can be said to have attained the sincerity of knowledge. Besides， a gentleman with genuine knowledge of the mind can adapt himself to the actual situation and realistic conditions in affairs of duty. That is why the superior man （junzi 君子） “does what is proper to the station in which he is” and “his reflection does not go beyond his station.”

Wang Yangming gave an incisive exposition of the relationship between duty， ability， and attentiveness in terms of responsibility ethics in extending intuitive moral knowledge. He demonstrated how one should take ones responsibility according to the current situation and state of affairs involved. He also affirmed that when one fulfills ones responsibility by seeking sincere and genuine knowledge in the mind， one will be rewarded with a clear conscience and inner moral satisfaction.

The Gongfu of Intuitive Knowledge and Responsibility Ethics [79]

Responsibility for Rectifying the Mind [80]

Wang Yangming transformed the duties for investigating things externally advocated by Zhu Xi into duties of internal investigation to improve the moral self， and thus turned the rectification of the mind into the primary goal of investigating things. As he said， “cultivation of the personal life depends on the rectification of the mind.” As the master of the personal body， the mind controls the ears， eyes， mouth， nose， and the limbs， and it decides whether one can do a thing or not. As Analects 12：1 said， “not to look at what is contrary to propriety， not to listen to what is contrary to propriety， not to speak what is contrary to propriety， and not to make any movement which is contrary to propriety.” Therefore， to cultivate the person， one has to gain a bodily or intimate recognition of the mind and to ensure that it is rectified in all respects.

How can one perform the duty of rectifying the mind？

Responsibility for Exerting the Mind to the Utmost [81]

Since ancient times， exerting the mind to the utmost is in every way associated with the performance of duty. Beginning with Mencius， Confucians constructed their own theories of exerting the mind to the utmost， which demonstrated their cherished concern for the inner and original heart-mind. Wang Yangming gave a lot of attention to Menciuss theory of exerting the mind and nature to the utmost and provided a new interpretation of it. He made a number of statements to emphasize the mind： “The highest virtue is innate to the mind”; “The highest virtue be sought within the mind only”; “There is no principle outside the mind”; “There is no event outside the mind.” With these he sought to underscore the necessary efforts spent on the mind in order to expel selfish desires and preserve the principle of Heaven.

When discussing “instructions about resting in the highest virtue，” Wang Yangming blended Confuciuss ideas on “being born with knowledge of duty，” “acquiring knowledge by study，” and “acquiring knowledge after a painful feeling of ignorance，” Menciuss “exhausting ones mental constitution in order to understand ones nature and know Heaven，” and the statement “investigation of things for the purpose of extending knowledge to the utmost，” from the Great Learning. After that he tried to reconstruct their logic of relationship：

To exhaust ones mental constitution in order to understand ones nature and know Heaven， implies that the individual is born with knowledge of the duties and carries them out with ease. Preserving ones mental constitution and nourishing ones nature so as to serve Heaven， implies that the individual acquires knowledge of them by study and practices them from a desire for advantage. The saying， “Neither a premature death nor a long life causes a man any double-mindedness，” implies that the individual acquires knowledge of them after a painful feeling of his ignorance and practices them by strenuous effort. Zhu Xi made a mistake in his teaching regarding the investigation of things because he inverted this idea， using “the exhausting of ones mental constitution in knowing ones nature” as “investigation of things for the purpose of extending knowledge to the utmost.” He wanted those who were learning for the first time to act as though they had been born with knowledge of duties and carried them out with natural ease. How can that be done？

Such a reconstruction is obviously arbitrary and rigid on his part. It also contradicts his emphasis on equality between sages and laymen. The fact is that both duties， “exhausting ones mind to understand ones nature and know Heaven，” and “preserving ones mind and nourishing ones nature to serve Heaven，” are the ethical commitments for the lifetime of every human being. Moreover， Wang Yangming obliterated the defining difference between investigation of things and rectification of the mind by interpreting the former as “the great man rectifying the mind of the prince” in the Mencius， so that by investigation of things is meant “to cast out the wrong in order to complete the right.” The truth is that together with sincerity of the will， gewu makes one of the premises for rectification of the mind， but it is not to be identified with rectification of the mind per se. Therefore， investigation of things and rectification of the mind are relatively independent processes or duties to complete in ones life in order to attain the self-development of moral virtue.

How， then， could one manage to exert the mind to the utmost？ Wang Yangming suggested two methods， one of which he dubbed single-mindedness or mastering ones mind （主一）. To perform ones duty of exerting the mind to the utmost in self-cultivation， one must be devoted to the duty with undivided effort. Whether with reading or with receiving guests， whether with longing for beauty， or with coveting wealth， one is actually dealing with things for trivial investigation， but genuine mastery of the mind consists in the fundamental task of keeping the Heaven-endowed principles. One must constantly remind oneself to cherish ones natural inclination for the principles of Heaven， to preserve it， and extend it. In other words， “to master ones mind implies mastering moral principles.” The other method is to illuminate the mind （mingxin 明心）. Using the prevalent Buddhist language， Wang Yangming talked of the mind as a bright mirror： “The mind of the sage is like a bright mirror. There is only brightness there， and thus the response will be true to the influence brought to bear upon it. It will reflect everything truly.” Therefore， the sage is realistically responsive to and adaptive to changing events. The scholars vulnerability， according to Wang Yangming， lies in the obscurity of his own mind： “One should be grieved if ones mind cannot become like a bright mirror， and should not grieve because things are continually changing.” Accordingly， “one must first complete the task of brightening up the mirror.” To sum up， the call for active effort with the mind means the awareness of duty and responsibility. To brighten up ones mirror of the mind is the approach to attaining larger responsibilities for fulfilling the potential nature of mind.

The Duty of Preserving the Mind [81]

Wang Yangming transmitted and advanced Menciuss gongfu of preserving the mind and idea of responsibility. Based on that， he put forward his own theory on the duties of preserving the mind.

First， he laid emphasis on assembling deeds of righteousness （ji yi 集義）. As a philosopher profoundly influenced by Buddhism， Wang Yangming never underestimated the efforts of quiet-sitting in meditation， but still he insisted that “not stimulating the mind” （不动心） should not be interpreted as what Gaozi did， controlling his mental activity only by force， but should be as Mencius， who accumulated righteous deeds in and through his mind. According to my own analysis of yi 义 in its Confucian sense， it means “responsibility” and “duty.” By “not stimulating the mind” Wang Yangming meant the necessary effort to constantly accumulate and nurture ones sense of duty and to assemble ones deeds of righteousness， to transform oneself in relation to moral principles. Therefore， it is in itself a responsibility.

Second， he made a point of cherishing principles. Wang Yangming put particular emphasis on the effort to exercise and cherish Heavens principles. He suggested that whether at action or at rest， one must try to expel human desires and preserve Heaven-given principles. He told his students that it is not equal to the centrality before feelings are aroused if one just stays away from stirring up the passions when preserving the mind. To fix ones passionate nature is only an external gongfu， but to fulfill the duty of preserving the mind， one must resort to moral cultivation of its inner nature with principles. Though efforts like nourishing the passionate nature are not without assistance， it is important to clear out selfish desires but follow the course of principles. That is why Wang Yangming said，

Scholars should give their attention to the most urgent things. When these methods （referring to the music） have become familiar， they are perhaps of little value. It is important that the mind should first cherish the source from which ceremonies and music come.

By “urgent things” he meant imminent duties that one must and ought to fulfill at the present moment.

The third method is to preserve the true self. One certainly does preserve the mind by cherishing the virtuous or good heart-mind， but to preserve an impartial mind and extend moral knowledge， one must also eliminate selfishness. Wang Yangming repeatedly taught that preserving the mind means to preserve ones moral principles native to the heart as natural laws of Heaven， so that ones mind is never occupied by selfishness. On the other side of it， this is what one does for cherishing the true， natural self.

Fourth， abstaining from any prejudiced mind. “Neither to anticipate deception nor to think beforehand of not being believed， and yet to realize this clearly” （Analects 14：31） was mentioned by Confucius， but Wang Yangming interpreted the remark as an expedient means for criticizing prevalent evils in his day. “He （Confucius） did not teach others to harbor this mind and desire to realize beforehand the deception and unbelief of others. To harbor this mind is the suspecting， disliking， wickedness and meanness of later generations. Moreover， when once this thought has taken possession， the individual is unable to walk in the path of Yao and Shun.” One of sagacious virtue must be endowed both with innate moral knowledge and with vision and foresight for danger. It can be seen that what Wang Yangming advocated by preserving the mind as a moral duty was to extend intuitive knowledge as well as preserve the intuitive mind.

The Duty of Nourishing the Mind [82]

Ideas on nourishing the mind （yangxin 养心） can be found in Menciuss theory of preserving the mind. Mencius was the first among the Confucians to raise the concept of nourishing the mind， and he linked it to human desires. He gave this advice， “For nourishing the mind there is nothing better than to have few desires” （Mencius 7B：35）.

Wang Yangming gave equal importance to nourishing the mind. “As he who grows a tree should not neglect to cultivate the roots， so he who desires to grow in virtue should develop his mind.” Sometimes he stressed the point that cherishing a reverent mind implies devoting ones self to preserving and nourishing the mind. The object of harboring or nourishing is the principle of Heaven that resides in the mind. Sometimes he stressed cultivating the original nature of mind. Elaborating on the unity of structure and function and of the states of human feelings when aroused and unaroused， he noted，

It is necessary to develop the original nature of the mind; then its use will include the state of equilibrium. In case one nourishes the original nature of the mind and attains to the equilibrium in which there is no stirring of feelings， there surely is present the state of harmony which results when the feelings are stirred and act in due degree.

But how could ones mind be nourished？ Wang Yangming gave the answer： to nourish the mind， preserve the mind， and rectify the mind all with sincerity.

Sincerity can be made to have reference to the task， for sincerity is original to the mind. Seeking to return to the original nature of the mind implies application in reflecting upon sincerity. The saying of Cheng Hao 程顥 （1032–1085）， “Cherish sincerity and reverence，” also has this meaning. The Great Learning also says， “Wishing to rectify their minds they first made their thoughts sincere.”

A Concluding Remark [83]

In the above I have demonstrated the varied aspects of Wang Yangmings ethics of duty and responsibility from his thoughts on mind–nature， mind–acts， mind–things， and mind–principles. These aspects underpin an ethical theory of duty and exhibit the inherent relationship between ones sense of duty and consciousness of responsibility. They also bring into prominence the active role of the mind in ones moral duty， moral sense of responsibility， and consciousness of obligation， by inhibiting or motivating ones moral intentions， moral motives， and moral conduct. His theory of intuitive knowledge as the substance not only clarifies peoples responsibility to extend their intuitive knowledge to the utmost， but also provides deep-lying moral motivation， moral principles and spiritual support for their commitments to worldly duties. It could help people to rediscover their conscience that is revealed in the life of realistic moral conflicts. His gongfu of intuitive moral knowledge points to the many duties for rectifying， exerting， cherishing and nurturing the mind. It reveals the rich content and practicable routes for the moral subject to attain his spiritual pursuits.

However， Wang Yangmings perspective on the human sense of duty from the minds intuitive knowledge of moral goodness has flaws in its argumentation. For example， he chose to turn a blind eye to the social aspect of moral duty if examined from outside the mind. As a result， he gave an exaggerated evaluation of the human conscience as the minds innate moral knowledge， as a sense of duty and responsibility， in its actual performance of duties. Wang Yangming undoubtedly saw the selfishness and private interests with human mental activities， as well as moral disparities among men in terms of their human mind and moral mind， as representing the benign and malign aspects of human nature. He was quite pleased with the universal， transcendental and purely logical explanatory power of his concept of conscience or intuitive knowledge when applied to the morally diversified situations in human acts， but he was not aware that the innate moral knowledge might be contaminated as well as originally pure. Moreover， a human could be deceived by his own conscience， either by overrating it or underrating it， for conscience and intuitive knowledge in moral judgment are of a strongly subjective nature. Solely relying on the self-discipline of ones conscience can never eliminate moral falsity in the performance of duty. Therefore， self-restraint by intuitive knowledge must be complemented with external and social regulation by institutions.

Bibliography of Cited Translations

Chan， Wing-tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton， NJ： Princeton University Press， 1963.

Henke， Frederick G.， trans. The Philosophy of Wang-Yangming. London： The Open Court Publishing Co.， 1916.

Translated by Wang Keyou