矿质营养元素阻控植物镉积累:从机制到应用
2018-01-12何小林关美艳范士凯何虎金崇伟
何小林,关美艳,范士凯,何虎,金崇伟*
镉(Cd)是一种高毒性有害重金属[1],但在土壤中自然含量通常较低,不会对动植物造成毒害。然而,许多城市近郊的土壤因社会的飞速发展和工业废水、废气、固体废弃物的不合理排放而受到了不同程度的重金属污染[2-4]。2014年《全国土壤污染状况调查公报》显示,我国土壤镉污染的点位超标率达到7.0%[5]。土壤镉污染还给农产品生产带来了严重的安全问题[6]。例如,湖南省因采矿和冶炼致使农田土壤被镉污染[7-8],乐清的菜地受到镉污染导致蔬菜中镉含量超标[9]。植物根系生长和光合作用因土壤遭受严重镉污染而受阻,植物体内水分和营养元素代谢也会因镉的毒害而失衡,从而使作物生长发育不良,其产量和品质同时下降[10]。尤其令人担忧的是,植物体内能富集一定量的镉,但是镉毒害却通常无明显的肉眼可见症状,致使受污染农作物中的镉经食物链富集作用,危害人类健康[11-12]。镉会对肾、肝、骨骼以及神经、血液等带来严重危害[13]。20世纪70年代,日本居民因食用镉米而得的“痛痛病”给日本造成了严重的伤害[14-15]。所以,如何确保我国耕地质量,在中轻度镉污染的土壤上实现农业安全生产,保证粮食安全和人类健康,是农业发展面临的重大挑战。
目前常用物理、化学等传统方法来修复和治理重金属污染的土壤。虽然它们的治理效果较为理想,所需周期也不长,但缺点是费用昂贵,不容易管理,易带来二次污染[16]。而植物修复技术因其绿色、经济和环保而逐渐成为研究热点。然而,由于超积累植物生物量小、生长缓慢,严重制约了镉污染耕地的农业生产[17]。近年来,许多学者尝试利用以植物生理过程为原理的农艺技术调控来阻控土壤中的镉进入农作物中,以达到保障农产品质量安全的目的。例如,近年来我们课题组研究发现,外源应用脱落酸(abscisic acid,ABA)可显著降低植物体内的镉积累并减少镉对植物的毒害[18]。此外,近年来还有许多学者关注并研究了矿质营养元素对植物镉积累的影响及机制[19]。在农业生产中,农民通常依靠增加施肥量来获得较高的作物产量。而许多养分元素和镉的有效性以及植物对镉的吸收之间存在密切的相互影响。因此,若能在施肥过程中正确处理矿质元素和镉之间的互作关系,将能够有效阻控植物对镉的吸收。本文主要根据近年来相关研究进展,综述了各种植物营养元素对镉吸收和耐性的影响机制,并探讨了其可能在农业生产中的应用价值。
1 铁
由于Cd2+与Fe2+的水合离子半径高度相似,铁营养与镉在植物体内的关系十分密切[20-21]。铁营养不足会导致植物体中的镉含量上升[22];相反,增加外源供铁可显著降低植物的镉含量[11,18,23]。在双子叶植物中,Fe2+吸收转运体(iron-regulated transporter 1,IRT1)已被证明是根系吸收Cd2+的关键转运蛋白之一[24],我们在此基础上发现,铵、脱落酸和增加外源供铁处理主要是通过抑制IRT1表达从而阻控植物对镉的吸收[11,18,25-26]。此外,虽然韧皮部卸载Fe2+的转运体OPT3(oligopeptide transporter 3)不直接参与Cd2+的转运,但OPT3突变后因减少了铁在种子中的贮存而间接地增加了镉的积累[27]。这些结果表明,Cd2+与Fe2+的吸收和转运在双子叶植物中均存在直接或间接的关系。在禾本科植物水稻中,尽管Mn2+转运蛋白OsNRAMP5(natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 5)被认为是根系吸收Cd2+的主要途径[28-31],但研究发现水稻的铁转运蛋白OsIRT1和OsNRAMP1也参与根系的镉吸收过程,过表达OsIRT1和OsNRAMP1均可使水稻的镉含量显著提高[32-33]。此外,在生理学层面也有研究发现,缺铁胁迫会显著促进水稻根系对Cd2+的吸收[34],而增加铁素营养的供应则降低了水稻的镉含量并缓解了镉的毒害[35]。这些结果表明,水稻体内Cd2+与Fe2+也存在密切的互作关系。由于Cd2+和Fe2+在化学性质上的相似性,含铁蛋白中的铁极易被Cd2+所替换,从而导致植物发生生理性缺铁[36]。对此,我们与其他研究小组在拟南芥和水稻中均发现镉胁迫也能引起正常供铁的植物出现缺铁的症状,并诱导许多铁吸收和铁稳态相关基因的表达[37-39]。这些结果表明,虽然缺铁和镉毒是2种截然不同的胁迫,但植物对这2种胁迫的响应存在部分交叉重叠。植物缺铁胁迫的响应在增强根系铁吸收和改善体内铁稳态中均发挥着重要的作用[40]。理论上,也正是由于Fe2+和Cd2+在化学性质上的相似性,植物体内的铁也可通过竞争作用阻止Cd2+吸收和转运以及Cd2+对含铁蛋白中铁的替换作用。另外,供铁水平与水稻镉含量、毒害程度呈负相关的研究结果在生理水平上也支持了这一结论[35]。因此,我们认为“缺铁胁迫响应”和“镉毒胁迫响应”的交叉重叠过程极有可能是植物控制镉吸收、转运和耐性等过程的重要机制。
综上,在农业生产中若能有效改善根际土壤环境中铁的有效性,比如,施用持久高效的铁肥或利用促铁吸收的微生物菌剂[41],可起到防治作物缺铁、减控作物镉污染的目的。
2 磷
磷(P)元素对植物的生长发育极其重要[42]。磷既是各种重要化合物的组分,又是作物高产及保持品种优良特性的重要保障[43]。人们普遍依靠长期增施磷肥以达到作物增产的目的,但与此同时也面临着严重的问题。因为磷矿石中本身含有重金属成分,所以施用磷肥极有可能会造成土壤重金属(镉、铜、锰、镍、铅和锌)污染[44-45]。因此,因磷肥的大量施用可能带来的镉污染问题也倍受关注。大量研究发现,磷和镉之间彼此影响的关系十分复杂[46-48]。例如:土壤溶液中的镉离子可以被难溶性磷酸盐直接吸附,同时磷酸根离子能增加溶液中阴离子含量,形成磷-镉沉淀物使镉钝化[49];此外,供磷增产显著带来的稀释效应可以使玉米和小麦茎叶及根系中镉含量降低[50];相反,也有研究发现,植物对镉的吸收量因施用磷肥提高了镉的溶解度及活性而上升[51]。因此,磷和镉之间在植物生理过程和土壤化学过程中均存在极其复杂的交互关系。鉴于上述原因,需要合理地设计水培试验以减少或避免根际土壤环境中磷和镉之间的相互影响,来阐明磷和镉在植物生理层面的相互关系。为此,有学者通过水培试验发现水稻地上部镉含量随着磷浓度的增加而增加[52];同样也有水培试验发现缺磷会降低植物对镉的吸收[53]。这些结果表明,植物体内磷营养状况对镉的积累存在负调控作用。ZHENG等[54]研究表明,植物体内磷和铁之间存在较强的拮抗作用,缺磷会显著提升植物体内铁的可利用能力,而铁转运蛋白基因IRT1的表达受植物体内铁营养状况的负调控。鉴于IRT1蛋白是植物吸收Cd的关键转运蛋白之一,因此,我们推测磷可能通过调控IRT1的表达来影响植物对镉的吸收和积累。
鉴于施用磷肥是最为频繁的一项农艺管理措施,所以有必要开展大量研究以系统阐明土壤环境中以及植物体内的磷与镉的关系,从而为合理进行磷素养分管理、降低作物镉积累提供理论依据。
3 氮
铵态氮和硝态氮是植物从土壤环境中吸收利用的2种主要氮形态。植物获取硝态氮时,会伴随H+的获取,使根际pH上升;植物吸收铵态氮时,会伴随H+的释放,导致根际pH降低[55]。由于土壤镉的有效性受pH的影响极大[56],多年来,许多学者一直认为以铵态氮作为氮源,可以通过酸化根际土壤来增加重金属的生物有效性,从而促进植物对重金属镉的吸收。这一推测也得到了一些试验证据的支撑。例如,施用铵态氮酸化土壤,增加土壤中活性镉的含量,增强植物对镉的获取[19]。然而,国内外也有许多研究得出了相反的结果,有研究发现供应硝态氮反而会增加植物对镉的吸收[57]。我们课题组在对小白菜盆栽试验的研究中发现,之所以出现这样截然不同的结果可能与土壤pH的缓冲性密切相关,即:当土壤pH缓冲性差时,与供应铵态氮肥相比,供应硝态氮处理使小白菜体内的镉含量显著降低;而当土壤pH缓冲性较强时,与供应铵态氮肥相比,供应硝态氮反而使小白菜体内的镉含量显著增加[58]。这一结果可能是在pH缓冲性强的土壤中,氮素形态对根际pH的影响较弱的缘故。同时,也说明氮素形态本身可能直接影响根系细胞对镉的吸收。我们还以番茄植物为材料,采用2-吗啉乙磺酸(2-morpholinoeethanesulfonic acid,MES)缓冲的水培试验证实了这一推测,即供应硝态氮能促进根系细胞对镉的吸收[25]。此外,我们还对硝态氮影响植物对镉吸收的机制进行了探究,结果发现,供应硝态氮的番茄根系铁转运体基因LeIRT1的表达和铁吸收量远高于供铵植物。鉴于IRT1转运体也是负责植物吸收镉的主要途径之一,我们以调控铁吸收相关的FER番茄突变体为材料,发现供氮形态对LeIRT1的表达和对镉的吸收都没有影响[25],这表明供应硝态氮可以通过诱导根系细胞质膜上的铁吸收系统来促进镉的吸收。
上述结果表明,合理的氮素养分管理可有效降低作物体内的镉积累,如在pH缓冲性较弱的土壤中施用硝态氮,在pH缓冲性较强的土壤中施用铵态氮,从而降低作物的镉积累。然而在现实条件下,铵态氮和尿素均是我国当前主要的氮肥形态,因此需要探讨在缓冲性弱的土壤中能更好地降低镉积累的方法。在理论上,土壤中铵态氮的硝化反应比植物吸收铵态氮所产生的酸化效应明显。通过盆栽试验发现,在pH缓冲性较弱的土壤中,铵态氮和尿素的分次施肥或使用缓释肥可减少施入土壤中铵的硝化比例,从而减轻硝化反应产生的酸化效应,同时也减少土壤中硝酸盐的含量,减弱硝酸盐促进植物根系细胞吸收镉的作用,实现降低作物镉含量的目标[59]。
既然外源硝酸盐能调控植物对镉的吸收,我们课题组还进一步研究了植物自身的硝酸盐吸收系统对镉的吸收是否也具有调控作用,结果发现镉胁迫自身也可显著抑制植物根系中NRT1.1(nitrate transporter 1.1)基因和NRT1.1蛋白的表达量,这一过程不仅抑制了根系对硝酸盐的吸收,而且也可减少植物对镉的吸收和减轻镉毒害程度。因此,镉胁迫引起的NRT1.1活性抑制是植物体内一种重要的耐镉毒机制[39]。为此,我们进一步研究了NRT1.1调控镉吸收的内在机制,发现NRT1.1活性受镉抑制可减少根际中伴随硝酸盐吸收的质子消耗[60],说明根际pH变化并非是NRT1.1活性受抑导致镉吸收降低的原因;通过转录组测序研究发现,NRT1.1功能缺失后,在植物根系中所有编码二价阳离子转运体的基因中,仅IRT1的表达显著下调;运用IRT1和NRT1.1双基因缺失手段,进一步揭示了IRT1活性下降是NRT1.1活性受抑制导致镉吸收减少的一个重要过程,但不是唯一途径。上述结果说明,利用生物技术手段调控作物自身的硝酸盐吸收将是减控作物镉污染的新策略[61]。
4 钙
钙在植物体内具有十分重要的生理生化功能,密切关系到植物生长[62]。研究表明:钙能增强植物抵抗环境胁迫的能力,如减轻水分胁迫、低温胁迫、盐胁迫等逆境对植物造成的伤害[63];钙也能增强植物对重金属镉胁迫的耐性,缓解镉的毒害[64],其机制主要有以下几个方面。
4.1 抑制土壤镉的有效性
pH值会改变土壤中镉的活性。石灰施入土壤中使土壤pH值升高,不仅可以降低镉的有效性,还可以增加土壤中的钙含量,促进植物体内矿质营养元素的吸收。土壤中镉的有效性随土壤pH值的升高而下降[65];在玉米地施用石灰后会使土壤镉的浓度下降,减少玉米镉含量[66]。因此,钙可以通过抑制镉的活性,缓解镉毒。
4.2 降低镉的运输
为了满足植物生长需求,植物营养元素一般经主动运输进入植物体内。重金属离子大多数通过离子通道进入植物体内[67]。植物吸收重金属镉的其中一条途径就是通过钙离子通道,所以施钙会减少通过钙通道进入植物体内镉的含量[68]。另外,因为钙离子和镉离子的离子半径相近和电荷相同,所以,钙、镉之间存在拮抗作用,两者可以竞争植物根系上的吸收位点。研究表明,尤其在较高的钙离子浓度下,镉的吸收会显著受到抑制[69-70]。如菜豆在幼苗期及成熟期处于镉胁迫时,供钙充足可以缓解镉毒,缺钙反而加剧镉毒,说明钙可以通过竞争作用减少植物对镉的吸收与利用[71]。在土壤中含钙矿物与镉会生成复合物,减弱镉的活性;同时钙与镉会发生竞争作用,减少细胞镉积累量[72]。因此,钙可以阻控镉的运输,缓解植物镉毒。
4.3 增强植物的抗氧化胁迫能力、光合作用和呼吸作用
植物需要钙参与调节抗氧化酶的活性,而且钙能稳定细胞膜的结构和功能[73]。其具体作用可归纳为以下2个方面:1)钙能降低植物细胞内活性物质的含量,使抗氧化系统中的保护酶及抗氧化物维持较高的水平;2)钙能使植物细胞的结构更加稳固,使活性氧代谢保持平衡。因此,钙能通过提高植物的抗氧化胁迫能力,增强其抵抗镉毒的能力。
钙是植物光合作用所必需的元素之一,同时能调控与光合作用密切相关的气孔运动,是保障光合作用顺利进行的关键因素[74]。研究表明,施用钙肥后能显著提高镉处理下玉米的叶绿素含量和酶的活性,降低丙二醛含量,从而改善玉米的生长状况[75]。蔡妙珍等[76]也认为,在镉胁迫下施钙可能是通过改善了细胞中酶的“生态环境”,提高了酶的活性,改善了植物的呼吸作用。
综上所述,钙可以缓解植物镉胁迫,因此,通过施用钙养分来阻控植物镉积累是一种可行的农艺措施。
5 其他矿质元素
养分元素锌(Zn)与植物的生理代谢、激素调节、抗逆性等功能都密切相关。我国耕地土壤缺锌严重,施用锌肥作物产量和品质得到显著提高。由于锌离子和镉离子都是二价离子,离子半径相似,土壤中施用锌肥可增强锌与镉的膜结合位点和运输系统的竞争作用,从而限制镉由韧皮部转运到籽粒[77]。相关研究表明:在缺锌土壤中,在一定范围内,随着施用锌肥量的增加,植物中镉的积累量减少更加明显[78];土壤严重缺锌时,施用锌肥可减少小麦体内镉的含量[79];施用锌肥可通过减少莴苣和菠菜根部对镉的吸收,阻止镉向茎叶迁移[80];运用同位素示踪法研究锌肥对小麦体内镉转运的影响,发现在较高锌浓度下,镉的转运受到显著阻止[81]。因此,锌可通过拮抗作用缓解植物镉胁迫。
硅(Si)是土壤中含量第二丰富的元素,为大多数植物所必需的有益元素,对植物的生长发育起重要作用[82]。植物体内镉含量随土壤中硅的增加而下降。例如:在一定的硅浓度条件下,施用硅肥能减少植物对镉的吸收量[83];增施硅肥会减少水稻体内镉的含量[84]。此外,增加细胞壁对镉的截留量,阻止植物根系中的镉向地上部转移,也是一种硅缓解植物镉毒的机制。比如,施用硅肥可以增加根的生物量,使根中镉的截留量增加,减少镉向地上部的迁移[85-86]。然而,在低镉浓度下,施用硅肥能阻止镉向地上部转移;相反,在高镉浓度下,施用硅肥反而促进镉向地上部迁移[87]。另外,一些研究发现,在叶面施用硅肥可抑制镉由水稻叶片向籽粒运输,防治农作物镉污染[88-89]。除此之外,施用硅肥还可以增强植物抗生物和非生物胁迫。例如,施用硅肥可以提高植物体内超氧化物歧化酶、抗坏血酸过氧化物酶、谷胱甘肽还原酶、脱氢抗坏血酸还原酶等的活性,提高植物对镉胁迫的抵抗力[90-91]。然而,硅浓度过高会造成中毒,因此,应适当利用硅肥才能达到理想效果。
硒(Se)是动植物体必需的有益元素[92-93]。施用硒肥能增强植物缓解镉毒能力。例如:施用硒肥能减少植物对镉的吸收量[94-95];也能有效调节油菜和小麦体内的镉元素含量,改善植物体生理状况,缓解镉胁迫引起的氧化损伤[96-97];叶面喷施硒肥可阻控水稻对镉的吸收[98]。关于硒可以缓解植物镉毒的可能机制包括:1)硒、镉复合物的产生;2)硒可增强植物的抗氧化酶活性;3)硒可能参与植物新陈代谢,可以同其他元素相互作用,缓解镉毒[99]。
锰(Mn)是植物必需的微量元素。由于锰离子和镉离子都是二价离子,同时它们的离子半径也相似,所以锰、镉之间存在显著的拮抗作用[100]。例如,增施锰肥可能通过竞争膜转运蛋白减少植物对镉的积累[101]。另外,锰还可以通过其他途径缓解植物镉毒。如施用锰肥可以通过促进植物的生长缓解植物镉毒[102];施用锰肥能阻止谷物中镉的转移和积累[103];此外,施用锰肥也可以恢复镉中毒的叶绿体结构,改善植物光合作用,缓解植物镉毒[104]。至于锰是否还可以通过其他途径缓解植物镉毒还需要进一步的研究。
6 小结
人体健康因镉经食物链的富集作用而受到严重威胁。因此,在中轻度镉污染土壤上实现农产品的安全生产,是一个亟待解决的现实问题。由表1可知养分元素对植物镉吸收的影响及可能的原因。而且,研究认为,植物养分元素对植物的镉积累和镉毒害具有显著影响。因此,在农业生产中,利用养分元素与镉之间的互作关系,合理地实施养分管理有望成为一种费用低、历时短、效率高的阻控作物镉积累的农艺措施。但是,目前关于植物养分元素在镉吸收、转运和耐性中的作用及机制仍不完全清楚。所以,仍需对此进行大量的研究,以期为通过养分管理实现镉污染土壤的作物安全生产提供全面的理论依据。
表1 不同矿质营养元素对镉吸收的影响及可能的原因Table 1 Effects of different mineral nutrient elements on Cd absorption and its possible reasons
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