An Analysis and Generalization of the Leaning Style Categories concerning Language Education

李浩江

【摘要】針对小学英语教学而言，提高小学生英语会话能力意义重大，实践教学过程中，应不断地总结新经验做法，切实提高小学生的英语水平。小学英语新课程标准中对听、说、读、写方面的要求都较高，其中英语会话能力作为小学英语的重要内容，其对于提高小学生的英语水平至关重要。本文结合多年小学英语教学实际，总结了提高小学生英语会话能力的几种方法。

【关键词】小学生；英语教学；会话能力

【Abstract】As Reid concluded that the area of learning styles is both complicated and fragmented. Many researchers have investigated different aspects of learning styles；at least 21 components have been identified，although probably most individuals have only 6 to 14 strongly preferred styles. Often these researchers label their learning style aspects with differing terminology，frequently obscuring understanding. This paper intends to analyze and generalize these categories of language learning styles to confirm a clear and definite understanding of the language learning style concepts.

【Keywords】categories cognitive learning styles sensory learning styles affective learning styles

【中图分类号】H0-0 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】2095-3089（2016）28-0242-03

Many researchers concerning with the study of language learning styles are often puzzled with that in some cases，learning styles terminology and categories overlapped；in other cases，very different aspects of learning styles are contrasted. This combination of complexity and fragmentation has consequently made learning styles research less accessible and practical for classroom use. Nevertheless，an increasing number of researchers have shifted their emphasis upon categorizing individuals learning styles on exploring learners diverse characteristics rather than defining the terminologies. The Dunn，Dunn and Price[1]viewed a learning style as a multidimensional concept and encompasses five stimulus categories：environmental，physical，emotional，sociological and psychological. According to the previous study，Kolb[2]investigated the learning styles with the examination of differences in learning orientations based on the degree to which people emphasize the four modes of learning process：concrete experiences，reflective observation，abstract conceptualization and active experimentation，then further placed the learners into four categories：diverger，assimilator，converger，or accommodator.

Brown[3]classified the learning styles into four major aspects concerning their comprehensiveness and relevance to language learning：field independence and field dependence；reflectivity and impulsivity； tolerance and intolerance of ambiguity；skeletonization and embroidery （skeletonizing involves pruning out some particular by retaining a substantive core of general facts which subsume the details；embroidering，on the other hand involves importing or adding some material in order to retain original details that otherwise might be forgotten）. Oxford made the point that each persons learning style contains a variety of dimensions and identified five learning style contrasts in her Style Analysis Survey （SAS） to represent different aspects of an individual learning and working styles：visual vs. auditory vs. hands-on concerning how to use physical sense to study and work；extroverted vs. introverted concerning how to deal with other people；intuitive vs. concrete-sequential concerning how to handle possibilities；closure-oriented vs. open concerning how to approach tasks；global vs. analytic concerning how to deal with ideas.

The most comprehensive and acceptable categorization of learning styles is developed by Joy Reid[4]，who divided learning styles into three major categories：cognitive learning styles，perceptual learning styles and personality learning styles.

1.Cognitive Learning Styles

According to Reids categorization，cognitive learning styles include field-independent/field-dependent （FI/FD） learning styles，analytic/global learning styles，reflect/impulsive learning styles，tolerance/intolerance of ambiguity learning styles and Kolb's experiential learning model.

1.1 Field-independent/ field-dependent learning style：Field-Independent Learner：learns more effectively step by step，or sequentially，beginning with analyzing facts and proceeding to ideas （sees the “trees” instead of the forest）. Field-Dependent （Field-sensitive） Learner：learns more effectively in context，holistically，intuitively，and is especially sensitive to human relationships and interactions （sees the “forest” instead of the trees）. Herman Witkin and his colleagues[5]found that the field-independent/field-sensitive preferences are powerful influence in academic choice and achievement，vocational preferences，and how learners learn and interact with different teachers.

The characteristics of filed-independent learners includes：perceive objects as separate from the field or context；scan an item from the field in an analytical fashion，solve problems independently based on factual information；experience independence from authority which leads to reliance on their own standards；are intrinsically motivated and have self-designed goals；are less affected by criticism；tend to be socially detached；show tendency to physical and psychological distance；are task-oriented；prefer to work independently；like to try new tasks without the teachers help；interested in concepts of their own sake；can self-structure situations；use hypothesis-testing approach to attain concepts；perform better in multiple choice and cloze tests. （Witkin，Moore，Goodenough，& Cox，1977；Ramírez & Castaneda，1974）.

The characteristics of field-dependent learners comprise：rely on surrounding perceptual field or context for information；experience their environment in a global fashion by confirming to the prevailing context；accept other peoples views before making a judgment；seek approval from authority figures through praise；are extrinsically motivated by externally defined goals；are affected by criticism；are strongly interested in people；get closer to the person who they are interacting with and are emotionally open；are socially oriented；like to work with others；seek guidance and demonstration by the teacher；prefer to learn material with social content and relevant to own experience；want organization to be provided；use a spectator approach to concept attainment；perform better on essay and open-ended test[5].

1.2 Analytic/global learning styles：Analytic learner：learns more effectively individually，prefers setting own goals，and responds to a sequential，linear，step-by-step presentation of materials. Global （relational） learner：learns more effectively through concrete experience，and by interactions with other people. The analytic/global learning styles are somehow overlapped with FI/FD styles in learners characteristics. As Violand-Sánchez[6]states：“Individuals with a FD mode…… are also considered global learners；that is，they learn holistically rather than discretely. In contrast，FI individuals，also called analytic learners，perceive the field as separate from the surrounding environment.”

1.3 Reflective/Impulsive learning styles：Reflective learner：weighs all the considerations in a problem，work out all the loopholes，then，after extensive reflection，carefully venture a solution；learns more effectively when she or he has time to consider options before responding （often more accurate language learners）. Impulsive learner：tends to make either a quick or gambling and impulsive guess at an answer to a problem；learns more effectively when she or he is able to respond immediately and to take risks （often more fluent language learners）.

1.4 Kolbs learning styles：

□Concrete Experiences + Abstract Conceptualization→ Perception.

□Reflective Observation + Active Experimentation→ Process.

The learning model of perception and process is further categorized into four learner types：Converger （Common Sense Learner）：learns more effectively when she or he is able to perceive abstractly and to process actively. Diverger （Innovative Learner）：learns more effectively when she or he is able to perceive concretely and to process reflectively. Assimilator （Analytic Learner）：learns more effectively when she or he is able to perceive abstractly and to process reflectively. Accommodator （Dynamic Learner）：learns more effectively when she or he is able to perceive concretely and to process actively

2.Sensory Learning Styles

According to Reid，sensory learning styles include perceptual learning styles （such as visual，auditory，tactile，kinesthetic and haptic），environmental styles （such as sound，light，temperature，classroom design，food intake，time and mobility） and sociological styles （such as group，individual，teacher authority，team and pair）.

2.1 Perceptual Learning Styles：Perceptual learning styles are one of the most obvious learning styles concerning individual learning preferences. They are the perceptual models or learning channels through which students take in information. Visual Learner：The visual learner learns more effectively through the eyes （seeing），likes to read a lot，which requires concentration-and time spent alone，needs the visual stimulation of bulletin boards，videos，and movies and must have written direction if one is to function well in the classroom. Auditory Learner：The auditory learner learns more effectively through the ear （hearing），enjoys the oral-aural learning channel and wants to engage in discussions，conversations，and group work. Tactile learner：The tactile learner learns more effectively through touch （hands on），enjoys working on experiments in a laboratory，handling and building models，and touching and working with materials provide them with the most successful learning situation. Kinesthetic Learner：The kinesthetic learner learns more effectively through concrete and completed body experience，requires movement and frequent breaks in activity，likes games，role-plays，taking a field trip，dramatizing，pantomiming，or interviewing and needs total physical involvement with a learning environment. Haptic Learner：Some researchers （O'Brien 1991；Oxford & Lavine 1991） combine the tactile and kinesthetic modalities and call them haptic. The haptic learner learns more effectively through touch and whole-body movement. Reid （2002） described that every learner has all of the four learning channels，but based on the deferent function of effective information input，these channel can be divided into major，minor and negligible learning preferences.

2.2 Environmental Learning Styles：Based on the learners' reactions to the immediate instructional environmental stimuli and their sociological preferences for learning，environment learning styles can be categorized into physical and sociological learner. Physical Learner：The physical learner learns more effectively when such variables as sound versus silence，bright versus soft lighting，warm versus cool temperatures，formal versus informal seating，time-of-day energy levels，intake （snacking while concentrating），and mobility needs are considered. Sociological Learner：The sociological learner learns more effectively when such variables as group，individual，pair and authority，team work，or level of teacher are considered.

3.ffective/Temperament Learning Styles

3.1 Myers-Briggs Temperament Styles （MBTI）：The MBTI is a self-report inventory that has been used in a wide variety of settings for educational，career and family counseling[7]（Myers & Briggs，1987）. It is based on Jungs theory of psychological types，and his views on perception and judgment. Perception involves “all the ways of becoming aware of things，people，happenings，or ideas，” and judgment involves “all the ways of coming to conclusions about what has been perceived”[8]（Myers & McCaulley，1985）. From the self-report，the MBTI attempts to identify an individuals basic preferences in terms of his or her habitual use of perception and judgment. Each of the four scales of the MBTI represents polar opposites，and the theory assumes that each pole is valuable and at times indispensable. Every person is presumed to use both poles of each of the four scales at some times，but to respond first or most often in a preferred style. Extraversion-Introversion：Extraverted learner：learns more effectively through concrete experience，contacts with the outside world，and relationships with others. Introverted learner：learns more effectively in individual，independent situations that are more involved with ideas and concepts. Sensing-Perception：Sensing learner：learns more effectively from reports of observable facts and happenings；prefers physical，sense-based input. Perception learner：learns more effectively from meaningful experiences and from relationships with others. Thinking-Feeling：Thinking learner：learns more effectively from impersonal circumstances and logical consequences. Feeling learner：learns more effectively from personalized circumstances and social values. Judging –Perceiving：Judging learner：learns more effectively by reflection，analysis，and processes that involve closure. Perceiving learners：learns more effectively through negotiation，feeling，and inductive processes that postpone closure.

3.2 Tolerance/Intolerance of Ambiguity Styles：This style concerns the degree to which learners are cognitively will to tolerate ideas and propositions that run counter to their own belief system or structure of knowledge. The construct of this style has been defined by Budner[9]（1962） as “the tendency of perceive……ambiguous （novel，complex，or insoluble） situations as sources of threat.” A more extensive description is provided by Norton[10]（1975），who conceived of the style as “a tendency to perceive or interpret information marked by vague，incomplete，fragmented，multiple，probable，unstructured，uncertain，inconsistent，contrary，contradictory，or unclear meanings as actual or potential sources of psychological discomfort or threat.” Ambiguity-Tolerant Learner：The ambiguity-tolerant learner learns more effectively when opportunities for experiment and risk，as well as interaction，are present，exhibiting more willing to take risks and more receptive to change，not be cognitively to effectively disturbed by ambiguity and uncertainty，and more content than others to entertain and even internalize contradictory propositions. Ambiguity-Intolerant Learner：The ambiguity-intolerant learner learns more effective when in less flexible，less risky，more structured situations，demonstrating more close-minded and more dogmatic，tending to reject items that are contradictory or incongruent with their existing system and wishing to see every proposition fit into an acceptable place in their cognitive organization.

3.3 Right-and left-hemisphere learning styles：Left-brained learners：tend toward visual，reflective，self-reliant learning. Right-brained learners：tend toward auditory，global＼relational，impulsive，interactive learning.

Because of the discrepancies in how the term learning styles is used，and the relativeness of the idea of consistency，there is confusion over what characteristics are most important in determining a persons learning style. For example，the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator （Myers & Briggs，1987） measures personality traits such as extroversion-introversion；Kolbs （1976） Learning Styles Inventory measures ways we process information；and Dunn，Dunn，and Prices （1975） Learning Styles Inventory includes perceptual and physiological aspects of styles. Most researches inevitably investigate one or two aspects of learning style and none encompasses all aspects. However，every fragmented research of traits in learning styles should actually be viewed as a fragmented picture that contributes to a whole picture of learning style inventory，hoping that eventually many of the results will converge and allow multidimensional learning style instruments to offer a “profile” of student learning styles.

References：

[1]Dunn，K.，Dunn，R. & Price，G. E. （1989）. Learning styles inventory （LSL）：an inventory for the identification of how individuals in grades 3 through 12 prefer to learn. Lawrence，KS：Price System

[2]Kolb，D. A. （1984）. Experiential Learning：experience as the source of learning and development. pp25-41. New Jersey：Prentice-Hall

[3]Brown，H. D. （1987）. Principles of language learning and teaching （2nd ed.）. Englewood Cliffs，NJ：Prentice-Hall

[4]Reid，J. （2002）. Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom. Beijing

[5]Witkin，Moore，Goodenough，& Cox，（1977）. Field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research，47，pp1-64

[6]Violand-Sánchez，E. （2002）. Cognitive and learning styles of high school students：implications for ESL curriculum development. In Reid，J. （ed.），Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom. pp49-62. Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

[7]Myers，I. B. & Briggs，P. B. （1987）. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto，CA：Consulting Psychologists Press

[8]Myers，I. B. & McCaulley，M. H. （1985）. Manual：A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. p1. Palo Alto CA：Consulting Psychologists Press

[9]Budner，S. （1962）. Intolerance of ambiguity as a personality variable. Journal of Personality，30，pp29-50

[10]Norton，R. W. （1975）. Measurement of ambiguity tolerance. Journal of personality Assessment，39，pp607-619