替加环素在儿童重症感染时应用的探讨
2017-03-08莹综述谈林华审校
宋 莹综述 谈林华审校
浙江大学医学院附属儿童医院外科重症监护室(浙江杭州 310052)
替加环素在儿童重症感染时应用的探讨
宋 莹综述 谈林华审校
浙江大学医学院附属儿童医院外科重症监护室(浙江杭州 310052)
替加环素作为新型的甘氨酰环素类抗生素,具有独特的作用机制,其抗菌谱广泛、耐药率低,在成人中应用多见。由于替加环素对牙齿的不良反应和缺乏足够的儿童用药临床数据,儿童用药少见。随着多重耐药菌感染增加,在无其他可替代药物选择时,部分医师在儿童重症感染时选择超说明书应用替加环素。文章综述儿童替加环素的超说明书用药、药物剂量、安全性等。
替加环素; 重症感染; 超说明书用药; 多重耐药菌
近年,抗菌药物发展缓慢,多重耐药菌发生增加,世界各地的临床医师均面临着一场耐药菌的严峻挑战。其中,屎肠球菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、鲍曼不动杆菌、铜绿假单胞菌和肠杆菌(ESKAPE)感染已成为全球重要的公共卫生问题之一[1]。对耐药ESKAPE感染,不仅临床上可选用的治疗药物非常有限,而且患者的发病率和死亡发生率也更高,最终将出现无药可用的困境。2014年复旦大学附属华山医院抗生素研究所细菌耐药监测网认为,细菌耐药性仍呈增长趋势,肺炎克雷伯菌、鲍曼不动杆菌中广泛耐药株的检出率较2013年上升[2]。因此,目前亟需新型有效的抗生素控制感染。
重症监护室危重患儿往往患有复杂基础疾病,住院期间进行侵入性操作、应用糖皮质激素和使用多种抗生素,发生多重耐药菌感染概率明显高于普通病房住院患者,同时儿科用药本身具有限制,因此,及时选择有效的抗生素对于挽救患儿生命十分重要。相对成人用药而言,儿童应用替加环素的经验及临床数据较少,本研究目的在于探究替加环素在儿童重症感染的疗效及安全性,为儿童用药总结临床经验。
1 替加环素用药指南
替加环素是首个被批准用于临床静脉内给药的甘氨酰环素类抗生素,具有广谱高效的抗菌活性,独特的结构使其不受大部分细菌对四环素类外排泵和核糖体保护两大重要耐药机制的影响。此外,替加环素还具有以下特点:药物相互作用少;组织穿透力强;分布广泛、给药剂量不受性别、种族、体质量的影响;血液透析及肝肾功能不全(严重的肝功能不全患者除外)者无需调整剂量[3-5]。2005年获美国食品药品管理局(Food and Drug Administration,FDA)许可应用于临床,适应证为成人复杂的腹腔内感染(complicated intrabdominal infections,cIAI)、复杂的皮肤及皮肤软组织感染(complicated skin and skin structure infections,cSSSI)和社区获得性细菌性肺炎(community-acquired bacterial pneumonia,CABP)[6]。
替加环素应用可能引起成人死亡率增加,所以关于其有效性及安全性的儿童临床试验并未开展。FDA提出在无其他抗生素可用时,儿童可选择替加环素,药物剂量疗程推荐如下:8~11岁儿童用药剂量为1.2 mg/(kg·次),q12h,最大剂量为50 mg,q12 h;12~17岁儿童建议50 mg,q12h,疗程均为5~14天[6,7]。考虑到类似四环素抗生素对儿童骨骼及牙齿发育的影响[8],8岁以下儿童不建议应用。
由于需要大量的儿童临床数据及试验证明药物的有效性和安全性,同时受伦理学方面的限制,目前只有不到50%的药物产品在儿童中有说明书[9],超说明书用药在儿科较常见,但同时也存在一定风险。临床医师根据专业判断,在病情需要且无其他药物选择时,以患者受益为目标,权衡利弊后可考虑用药。替加环素儿童用药属于超说明书用药,2010年至今所报道的使用替加环素治疗的患儿,以肺炎、脓毒症居多,其次有复杂的腹腔内感染、复杂的皮肤及皮肤软组织感染,少见的有泌尿系感染、颅内感染及胆道感染。
2 儿童文献回顾总结
受感染严重程度、其他抗生素治疗失败、多重耐药菌出现等因素影响,替加环素在临床中存在超说明书用药。但儿童临床用药经验少,临床成功率参差不齐[10-21]。2010年Heather等[21]报道第1例儿童应用替加环素病例,21个月急性难治性白血病幼女造血干细胞移植后出现耐万古霉素肠球菌脓毒症合并颅内感染,替加环素(负荷量3 mg/kg后2 mg/kg,q8h)联合达托霉素抗感染治疗14天后培养阴性,随访3个月无复发。随后不断出现替加环素儿童用药的病例报道。样本量较多的为以下3个报道:①Hurtado等[17]报道2008年至2010年9例儿童使用替加环素治疗耐碳青霉烯类肺炎克雷伯菌引起的腹膜炎、脓毒症、肺炎,其中6例感染完全治愈。②Iosifidis等[12]收集2009—2014年13例(2.5个月~14岁)患儿使用替加环素治疗泛耐药(extensively drug-resistant,XDR)革兰阴性菌感染,在11例患儿中应用替加环素≥5天,临床成功率和微生物清除率分别为64%和57%,并且联合之前的病例报道,统计显示,脓毒症患儿的死亡率高于非脓毒症患儿(P=0.009),结果与成人报道[22]类似,说明XDR细菌感染的脓毒症患儿选择替加环素治疗预后欠佳。③浙江大学报道严重感染的24例患儿(年龄50天~12岁)应用替加环素治疗,其中7例为血液系统恶性肿瘤,13例合并有免疫缺陷,最常见的分离病原菌为多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌,最常见的感染部位是下呼吸道,治疗成功率只有20.8%(5/24),并且均为鲍曼不动杆菌肺炎患者[11]。替加环素临床有效率的范围为20.8%~66.6%。因此,对于儿童替加环素疗效不应高估。
3 药代动力学/药效学及剂量
3.1 药代动力学及药效学
替加环素为时间依赖性抗生素,具有持续较长的抗生素后效应,血药浓度-时间曲线下面积/最低抑菌浓度(area under the curve/minimum inhibitory concentration,AUC/MIC)是其药效学评价指标。研究表明,替加环素半衰期在健康受试者中长达(60.7 ± 23.4)h[23]。替加环素组织穿透力良好,体内广泛分布并在骨骼、肝、脾、肾和皮肤中有较好的分布,在胆汁、胆囊、结肠、肺的24 h内稳态血药浓度时间曲线下的面积(AUC 0-24)是血清的573、23、2.6和2倍[24]。替加环素主要经过粪便排泄,约10%~15%的药物经过肾排泄,并且药物代谢不通过细胞色素P450酶系统,药物间相互作用少。
3.2 儿童剂量
目前成人替加环素推荐剂量为负荷量100 mg,维持量是50 mg,q12h。有关儿童药代动力学/药效学临床研究十分有限。Jay等[25]报道,8~11岁严重感染患儿接受替加环素多剂量梯度(0.75、1.00、1.25 mg/kg,q12h,最大剂量不超过50 mg)的多中心开放标签临床Ⅱ期试验,研究结果表明,0.75 mg/kg剂量组的临床治愈率最高(94%,16/17),但根据药效学MIC值以及目标AUC 0-24/MIC比值认为1.2 mg/(kg·次),q12h,对8~11岁儿童为最合适的剂量。目前关于负荷量剂量暂未明确。
3.3 大剂量应用
近年来,有关替加环素成人大剂量应用的报道屡见不鲜,大剂量即为负荷量200 mg,维持量100 mg,q12h[26,27]。最初有研究者提出,高剂量替加环素在肺上皮细胞内液中浓度高于细胞外液和胞浆[28],因此需要大剂量抗生素治疗多重耐药菌肺炎。在对100例多重耐药菌感染的成人患者的回顾性分析中发现,其中63例呼吸机相关性肺炎患者中大剂量替加环素治疗组成功率明显高于普通剂量组,并且大剂量替加环素是临床治愈的唯一独立预测因子(OR=6.25,95%CI:1.59~24.57)[29]。低剂量替加环素应用具有产生耐药菌株的较高风险[30],并且是治疗失败原因之一。然而,2005年国外就有文献报道随着替加环素剂量增大,恶心和呕吐发生率增加[24],因此临床医师应用大剂量替加环素时应警惕药物不良反应。
虽然大剂量替加环素应用在儿童中并无相关临床研究,值得注意的是,在Iosifidis等[12]报道的13例患儿(2.5个月~14岁)应用替加环素,负荷量为0~6.5 mg/kg,中位数 4 mg/kg,维持量为1.0~3.2 mg/kg,中位数1.4 mg/kg,q 12 h;其中6例肺炎患儿,病原菌主要为鲍曼不动杆菌5例有效,临床成功率高达83.3%,5例患儿无不良反应,仅1例患儿出现谷氨酸氨基转移酶及天冬氨酸氨基转移酶升高,所用负荷量为6.5 mg/kg,维持量为3.2 mg/kg,q12h。其他病例报道显示大多数患儿替加环素剂量均为1.0~1.2 mg/kg,q12h[11,13,16-18]。因此,多重耐药菌感染肺炎患儿的替加环素最适合剂量可能比Jay等[25]报道的剂量大,但大剂量可引起不良反应,考虑到样本量小且无法进行统计分析,因此需要收集更多临床研究数据。
4 微生物学
替加环素作为广谱抗生素,尤其对多重耐药菌有良好的抗菌活性,如耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌、耐万古霉素肠球菌、多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌、产KPC酶肺炎克雷伯杆菌及产超广谱β-内酰胺酶肠杆菌,但对绿脓杆菌、变形杆菌、摩根氏菌、普罗威登斯菌不敏感[31]。儿童临床报道替加环素主要用于MDR、XDR菌株的感染,其中较多的是多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌[11]。替加环素监测与评价试验(Tigecycline Evaluation and Surveillance Trial,TEST)从全球纵观面上分析替加环素敏感性,发现儿童分离的革兰阳性菌及大多数革兰阴性菌(>95%)对替加环素敏感,其中90.8%鲍曼不动杆菌对替加环素敏感;此外,研究者认为儿童菌株对替加环素敏感性与成人菌株有差异,且1~5岁患儿分离的鲍曼不动杆菌对替加环素敏感性更高[32,33]。替加环素敏感性还存在地域差异,在亚洲,替加环素对鲍曼不动杆菌不敏感率为14.2%~57.6%[34]。对鲍曼不动杆菌耐药机制仍存在争议,目前认为与以下因素有关:样本量大小、鉴定及药敏检测方法、外排泵过度表达及碳青霉烯类抗生素的应用[35,36]。儿童替加环素应用中仅出现1例药物敏感性降低[11],未发现耐替加环素鲍曼不动杆菌。因此,目前儿童鲍曼不动杆菌对替加环素敏感性高。
5 联合用药
关于儿童替加环素联合用药疗效及安全性的报道较缺乏,而成人的联合用药治疗进展主要有以下两方面:①联合治疗的潜在优势在于药物协同作用提高疗效,劣势包括不良反应和抗生素应用增加[37]。对于革兰阳性菌(如肠球菌、葡萄球菌),替加环素联合利福平或达托霉素具有协同作用,而联合阿米卡星或多粘菌素对革兰阴性菌(如鲍曼不动杆菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、肠杆菌)有协同作用。有研究观察205例肺炎克雷伯菌血流感染患者,发现其中联合用药治疗的患者死亡发生率显著低于单药治疗者(27.2% 对44.4%)[38]。②单药治疗的风险有可能出现二重感染,在一项包括45例革兰阴性多重耐药菌感染患者应用替加环素治疗的研究中,单药治疗和联合用药治疗的临床成功率分别是80.0%和78.3%,然而出现替加环素耐药肠杆菌二重感染发生率分别是31.8% 和13.0%[39]。铜绿假单胞菌是最常见的二重感染细菌[40]。因此,当面临儿童难治性耐药菌感染,可根据不同病原体及个体情况选择合适的抗生素联合治疗,以改进疗效和预防细菌耐药产生。
6 不良反应
成人及8~11岁儿童应用替加环素最常见的不良反应是恶心和呕吐[6,25]。儿童用药出现的其他不良反应有:急性胰腺炎[20]、高血压[16]、中性粒细胞植入延迟[15]、腹泻[11,12,17]、天冬氨酸氨基转移酶和谷氨酸氨基转移酶升高[11]、胆红素升高[11],以及凝血酶原时间和活化部分凝血活酶时间延长[11]。此外,由于大多数应用替加环素儿童为危重患者和机械通气患儿,消化道反应难以评估[11]。替加环素可渗透到骨骼中有积聚骨骼的倾向,可能引起骨化延迟及永久性变色牙[8]。此外,儿童中尚无长期随访数据。
综上所述,儿童应用替加环素属于超说明书用药,临床医师需要评估病情,根据循证医学、病原菌检测及药物敏感实验,结合医学伦理问题,权衡患儿风险及收益,无其他药物选择时,有限谨慎用药。此外,替加环素的有效性及安全性仍需大样本随机对照试验来明确。
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2017-01-20)
(本文编辑:邹 强)
Investigation on tigecycline therapy for severe infections in children
Reviewer: SONG Ying,Revisor: TAN Linhua (Department of Surgery Intensive Care Unit,The Children’s Hospital,Zhejiang University School of Medicine,Hangzhou 310052,Zhejiang,China)
Tigecycline is a new class of antimicrobials called glycylcyclines,which has been reported to have a speci fi c antibacterial mechanism with a wide spectrum and low resistance rate.In adults,tigecycline safety and ef fi cacy data were widely known.However,its use in children has been extremely limited because of lacking experience on its effects on tooth development and other clinical data in children.When no other alternative antibacterial agents could be chosen due to multidrugresistant bacterial infections,tigecycline would became an available approach to treat severe infections in children.This article offers an overview on tigecycline off-label uses,dosage and safety,and provides evidences for the choice of antibiotics in pediatric patients with severe infections.
tigecycline; severe infection; off-label use; multidrug-resistant
10.3969/j.issn.1000-3606.2017.11.018