语类结构潜势理论与大学英语议论文写作教学
2014-04-03陶卫红
陶卫红
(浙江财经大学外国语学院,杭州310018)
语类研究有三个不同的传统:1)以Swales和Bhatia为代表的“特殊用途英语” (English for Specific Purposes,简称ESP);2)以Miller为代表的“新修辞学”(New Rhetoric);3)以Martin为代表的悉尼学派。
ESP关心的是大学阶段以非英语为母语的学生学习学术性话语的需要,强调的是语类的交际目的以及相关的语言特征,如 Swales[1-3],Bhatia[4-6]和 Hyland[7]所指出的。
新修辞学关心的是人们如何使用语类以实现特定语境中的特定目的,强调的是人们如何通过语类实施社会行为并体现语言使用者之间的相互关系,如Miller[8], Bazerman[9], Berkenkotter & Huckin[10],Freedman & Medway(1994a,1994b),Coe,Lingard& Teslenko,Bazerman& Russell和 Bazerman,Bonini& Figueiredo[11]。
悉尼学派研究的重点是语类结构潜势 (generic structure potential),这个理论最初由 Halliday提出[12]。语类 (genre)指的是“用语言体现文化的、分阶段实施的、有目的的社会过程”[13],如天气预报、新闻报道、商业信函、小说、诗歌等。语类结构 (generic structure)指的是某个社会事件或某类社会事件所具有的内部结构,如体育新闻报道由“结果”加“过程”构成、体育现场比赛评论由“过程”加“结果”构成等。语类结构潜势指的则是某类社会活动所具有的潜在结构,如师生课堂对话的潜在结构是“老师提问+学生回答+老师反馈”,而夫妻日常对话却不一定有“反馈”这个环节。语类结构潜势理论重点研究以下四个问题:1)哪些步骤是必不可少的?2)哪些步骤是可有可无的?3)哪些步骤是可以多次出现的?4)所有步骤是按照什么顺序出现的?由此可见,这个理论不仅关注语篇结构的完整性,而且关注语篇内部的逻辑性。正因为如此,该理论对外语写作教学有着很大的指导意义。从上世纪80年代起,该学派就把语类理论应用于语言教学。他们最初关心的是小学、然后是中学和大学阶段移民、土著和劳动人民家庭的子女在学习写作过程中的需求,强调的是语类的语言结构和符号结构,并把这种研究看作是系统功能语言学中语言与社会语境模型的一个组成部分。
上述三种研究传统在我国语言学界都得到了积极的响应。遵循前两种传统的重要成果有秦秀白[14-15]、鞠玉梅[16]、卢思源[17]等等;遵循第三种传统的主要成果有张德禄[18-19]、辛斌[20]、于晖[21-22]等。
然而,国内公开发表的与大学英语议论文写作直接相关的研究成果为数很少,显示高校英语教学对这个课题还没有给予足够的重视。本文将以系统功能语言学家提出的语类结构潜势理论为指导,对目前我国大学英语议论文写作教学存在的缺陷以及语类结构理论对课堂教学的启示展开讨论,希望能为英语议论文写作课教学质量的提高发挥积极的作用。
一、语料的采集方法和选用原则
为了客观了解我国非英语专业大学生英语议论文的实际写作能力,笔者于2012年12月对某所非211高校非英语专业的50名一年级本科生进行了实地调查。具体做法是要求他们在30分钟内当场完成一篇200字左右的议论文,题目是“What makes a good friend?”之所以选择这个题目,是为了确保所有学生都能有话可说。此外,为避免学生因情绪紧张而影响作文过程和作文质量,则通过任课教师在写作课上安排学生写作文,以十分自然的方式收集真实的语料。
因为篇幅原因,本研究从50篇作文中挑选两篇,以反映突出的问题。为了让读者看到学生的真实水平,将呈现这些作文的本来面貌,不做任何改动。不难看出,这两篇作文含有词汇、语法、修辞、逻辑等方面的问题,而在此主要讨论文章的语类结构。
二、议论文的性质、基本要素和结构
议论文是以议论为主要表达方式,通过摆事实,讲道理,直接表达作者的观点和主张的语类。
议论文有三个基本要素:论点、论据、论证。
论点就是文章所要议论、阐述的观点,是作者要表达的看法和主张,应考虑正确性、鲜明性和新颖性。论点可以安排在开头,也可以安排在中间或结尾,有时会是标题,但较多情况是在文章的开头。
论据指的是证明论点的材料、依据,讲究正确性和典型性。论据可以是事实材料,如具体事例和统计数字;也可以是理论依据,如前人的经典著作、至理名言、民间谚语和俗语、科学上的公理、规律等。
论证指的是用论据来证明论点的过程。这个过程可以分为立论和驳论两大类型。立论是以充足的证据正面证明作者自己论点正确的论证方式;驳论则是以有力的论据反驳别人错误论点的论证方式,立论和驳论都是一种证明,无非一个是从正面证明其正确,而另一个是从反面证明其错误。二者可以使用基本相同的论证方法,如归纳法、演绎法、例证法、对比法等。
上述三大要素之间的关系是论点解决“要证明什么”的问题,论据解决“用什么来证明”的问题,而论证解决“如何进行论证”的问题。论证的目的在于揭示出论点和论据之间的内在逻辑关系。
议论文的语类结构通常由三部分构成:1)论点;2)论据和论证;3)结论。在论点部分,初学者最好每篇文章只设一个论点,以便把握。论点出现的位置以第一段的开头或结尾为宜。论据以2~3个为宜。结论必须和论证保持一致。
三、语料分析
在此,将对两篇作文的语类结构进行分析,首先指出存在的问题,然后根据议论文的语类结构要求提供其相应的修改稿。修改遵循两条原则,一是尽量保留原文的表达方式,二是纠正明显的语言错误,因此修改稿未必达到范文标准。
(一)语类结构残缺的作文
What makes a good friend?
(1)As we all know,a good friend and a good teacher mean a lot to us.When we are puzzled,a good friend can tell us which way is the best.When we feel down,a good friend can cheer us up.When we feel lonely,a good friend always company us.
(2)To make a good friend,I think trust is exactly important.Trust is a bridge of deep communication.If you don’t trust your friends,you also will not trust you.Second,excusal also plays an important role in a good friendship.Everyone will make mistakes.What we can do is to learn to forgive others.When your friends make mistakes,we should learn to forgive your friends instead of blaming.
(3)Having a good friend,we could learn a lot from a good friend.And no matter in study and life,we can help each other.
这篇作文由三个自然段落构成。第一段讲的是拥有好朋友的重要性,但画蛇添足地提到了“好老师”的重要性;第二段讲的是好朋友的两条标准:互信和宽容;第三段讲的依然是拥有好朋友的重要性,没有提供结论性的意见,导致全文结构不完整。另外,作文当中还出现了较多的语言错误,包括用词不当,如:“feel down”应为“feel depressed”,“I think trust is exactly important”应为“I think trust is most important”,“excusal also plays an importantrole in a good friendship”应为“forgiveness also plays an important role in a good friendship”;语法错误如:“a good friend always company us” 应 为 “a good friend always accompanies us”, “we should learn to forgive your friends instead of blaming”应为“we should learn to forgive your friends instead of blaming them”;人称指代混乱如:“If you don’t trust your friends,you also will not trust you.”应为 “If you don’t trust your friends,they will not trust you.”下面是对原文进行了语言和语类结构整改后的修改稿:
What makes a good friend?
(1)As we all know,a good friend means a lot to us.When we are puzzled,a good friend can tell us which way is the best.When we feel depressed,a good friend can cheer us up.When we feel lonely,a good friend always accompanies us.
(2)To make a good friend,I think trust is most important.Trust is a bridge of deep com-munication.If you don’t trust your friends,they will not trust you.Second,forgiveness also plays an important role in a good friendship.Everyone will make mistakes.What we can do is to learn to forgive others.When your friends make mistakes,we should learn to forgive your friends instead of blaming them.
(3)There might be other things to consider,but to me trust and forgiveness can make a good friend.
(二)语类结构多余的作文
What makes a good friend?
(1)Throughout our life,we rely on small groups of people for love,admiration,respect,moral support and help.It is the importance of a good friend we can conclude.So we have a question:What makes a good friend?
(2)As far as I am concerned,honesty is the most importantcomponentin a friendship.Ifyou are dishonesty,no one will make friend with you.Second,having trust in each other.Friendship is a source of happiness,so we should trust in each other.Third,having the common interest and goal.In our life,we know some good friends both in common interest and goal from ancient to the present age.For example,Marks and Engels.Last but not the least,I think good friend should have more times to get along with each other.Even they are at different place,they should contact with others.Good friend know what you like eat,what colour you like most.I think,a friend is,as it were,a second self.
(3)All of those make a good friend.
(4)As we all know,a good friend is an essential ingredient in the making of a healthful rewarding life.No man is the whole of himself,his friends are the rest of him.We need good friend to make our life more lighter.
(5)What makes a good friend?Socrates says:“Don’t try to win a friend by presenting gifts.You should instead contribute your sincere love and learn how to win others through appropriate ways.”So we should make good friend with love and our heart.
这篇文章由五个自然段落组成,其中第一段以非常自然的方式引出问题。第二段从为人诚实、彼此信任、兴趣相同和时常相聚等方面论述了好朋友的条件。第三段是全文的结论。第四段讲的是拥有好朋友的重要性。第五段重提好朋友的要素是什么这个问题,但所引用的苏格拉底的一段话讲的却是如何交到好朋友的方法。对照议论文语类结构的要求,这篇作文有两点不足。一是第二段内部层次不够清楚,说到的内容有四点,但没有明显的话语标记;二是第四段和第五段多余,可以删除,但考虑到有一定的保留价值,可以把第四段整合进第一段,把第五段整合进第二段。另外作文中出现了很多语法及搭配错误,如:“If you are dishonesty,no one will make friend with you”应为“If you are dishonest,no one will make friends with you”,“Third,having the common interest and goal”应为“having common interest and goal”, “Even they are at different place,they should contact with others”应为 “Even they are at different places,they should contact each other”,等等。下面是对原文在语言上尤其是在结构上进行了较大改动后的修改稿:
What makes a good friend?
(1)A good friend is an essential ingredient in the making of a healthful rewarding life.Throughout our life,we rely on a small group of friends for love,admiration,respect,moral support and help.But we have to answer a question:What makes a good friend?
(2)First,being honest is the most important component in a friendship.If you are dishonest,no one will make friends with you.Second,having trust in each other.Friendship is a source of happiness,so we should trust in each other.Third,having common interest and goal.In our life,we know some good friends both in common interest and goal from ancient to the present age.For example,Marx and Engels.Fourth,love.Socrates says: “Don’t try to win a friend by presenting gifts.You should instead contribute your sincere love and learn how to win others through appropriate ways.”So we should make good friends with love and our heart.Last but not the least,I think good friend should have more times to get along with each other.Even they are at different places,they should contact each other.Good friends know what you like to eat,what colour you like most.I think,a friend is,as it were,a second self.
(3)I think,all this makes a good friend.
四、本次调查对教学的启示
本次调查表明,大学生的英语写作能力总体偏低。除了单词拼写、语法、搭配等方面存在大量错误外,篇章结构残缺、多余和混乱的现象普遍存在,显示了中小学英语教学和大学英语教学对语类结构重要性的认识明显不足,需要引起师生双方的高度关注。具体措施可以包括以下几个方面:1)在教材编写和教师授课过程中有意识地强化语类结构的意识。在英语写作教材的编写过程中,将语类结构理论知识编入教材,通过这方面的系统介绍,使学习者能够在写作时具备基本的语类知识从而避免出现作文的篇章结构残缺、多余或混乱的现象。2)通过范文向学生演示完整而正确的议论文结构。结合范文讲解如何运用语类结构理论知识规范作文的框架,构建作文的思路,避免出现条理不清、思路混乱的现象。3)通过学生作文的现场分析和批改帮助学生认清存在的结构问题。将问题作文展示给学生,分析并指出作文的不足之处,除了其中的语言错误之外,在篇章结构方面还存在哪些问题和缺陷,并让学生运用所学知识即时修改作文,使之更加符合文章的文法规则,做到篇章结构更加符合逻辑,条理层次更加明了清晰。
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