跨越国际航运要道的桥梁：对拟建马六甲海峡大桥的研究

跨越国际航运要道的桥梁：对拟建马六甲海峡大桥的研究

马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡是世界最重要海上咽喉中的两个,这两条水路也被视为马来西亚、印度尼西亚和新加坡这些沿岸国家的重要经济命脉。最近,建造一座横跨马六甲海峡,连接马来西亚马六甲和印度尼西亚杜迈的桥梁的提议引起了赞成和反对的各种反应。本文讨论了拟建的横跨马六甲海峡大桥带来的潜在影响,结论显示无论该桥的建造是否会为该区域和全球的经济带来整体上的积极影响,马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡都是海运要道,任何对国际航运交通流的干扰都将对全球经济不利。

国际法 马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡 海运

一、引 言

马六甲海峡的入口位于苏门答腊岛最北端的乌戎巴卡和泰国普吉岛的莱姆佛兰之间,①Executive Summary,in H.M.Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspectiv e,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,xiii～xvi.通往安达曼海的水道非常宽阔,大约有200海里宽,②Amelia Emran,The Regulation of Vessel-Source Pollution in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,University of Wollongong Master of Maritime Studies Research Thesis,2007, p.9.将马来西亚半岛本土和印度尼西亚的苏门答腊岛分开,由于往南部逐渐缩小而形成了漏斗形的水路。从一拓浅滩开始马六甲海峡在任意两岸之间的宽度均小于50海里,海峡终端位于马来西亚丹戎比艾和印度尼西亚卡里摩岛之间,此段缩窄至仅8.4海里,与位于新加坡南海岸东柔佛州与印尼廖内群岛之间的新加坡海峡衔接。①H.M.Ibrahim,Hairil Anuar Husin and Daneswari Sivaguru,The Straits of Malacca:Setting the Scene,in H.M.Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspective,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,pp.32～33;J.Ashley Roach,Enhancing Maritime Security in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Journal of International Affairs,2005,at http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-140163623/enhancing-maritime-security-straits.html,1 May 2012.

新加坡海峡长约60.8海里,宽度不超过8.639海里,向更大的连接太平洋的中国南海开放。②Michael Leifer,International Straits of the World,Malacca/Singapore/Indonesia:Sijthoff &Noordhoff,1978,pp.58～60;M.I.Bird,W.C.Pang and K.Lambeck,The Age and Origin of the Straits of Singapore,Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, Vol.241,2006,p.531;I.M.Andi Arsana and Farid Yuniar Sumaryo,Geospatial Aspects of Maritime Boundary Delimitations in the Singapore Strait involving Indonesia,Malaysia and Singapore,paper presented at the FIG Congress 2010:Facing the Challenges-Building the Capacity,Sydney,2010,p.8.尽管马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡曾被认为是一体的,但现在国际海道测量组织从水道学的角度将其看作是两个独立的海峡。③Limits of Oceans and Seas,150-XII-1971,International Hydrographic Organization,1953, p.23.

马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡位于巽他大陆板块珊瑚大三角内,两者都被视为重要的渔场,拥有敏感的海洋环境。④H.Rezai,F.M.Yusoff,A.Kawamura,A.Arshad and B.H.R.Othman,Zooplankton biomass in the Straits of Malacca,Indian Journal of Marine Sciences,Vol.31,No.3,2003, pp.222～225;Siti Nazatul Izura bt Mohd Ishak and Tan Kim Hooi,Fisheries in the Straits of Malacca,in H.M Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profileof the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspective,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,p.88.沿岸许多美丽的岛屿、沙滩和独有的沿岸环境、海洋环境,如红树林、泥滩和泥炭沼泽,通过蓬勃发展的生态旅游产业为马来西亚、印尼和新加坡带来了很大的经济收益。⑤Chua Thia-Eng,S.Adrian Ross and Huming Yu,Malacca Straits Environmental Profile,GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in East Asian Seas,1997,pp.85～92.

从国际航运界的视角看,马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡是促进全球贸易的战略性海上交通线,①Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli,The Application of Compulsory Pilotage in Straits Used for International Navigation:A Study of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Asian Politics &Policy,Vol.3,No.4,2011,pp.501～526.为连接中东石油供应和东亚经济体,即中国、日本、韩国提供了最短路线。②中东或海湾的石油出口大约三分之二是亚洲国家,即日本、中国、韩国。See Michael Richardson,The Sea Lane and Energy Security Lifeline between the Persian Gulf and A-sia,in Andrew Forbes ed.,Asian Energy Security:Regional Cooperation in the Malacca Strait,Australia:Sea Power Centre,2008,pp.118～119.1987年全年过境通行量达30377艘,③Abdul Rani Abdullah,Norhayati Mohd Tahir,Tong Soo Loong,Tafazzal Mohd Hoque and Abdul Halim Sulaiman,The GEF/UNDP/IMO Malacca Straits Demostration Project: Sources of Pollution,Marine Pollution Bulletin,Vol.39,1999,p.232.这一数字逐年增加并在2010年达到近74000艘船舶的运输量。

表1 马六甲海峡2000—2010年航运量(并预测2020年)

据称1998年平均每天有600艘船从马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡通航。④Raja Malik Kamaruzaman,Navigational Safety in the Strait of Malacca,Singapore Journal of International&Comparative Laws,Vol.2,No.2,1998,pp.468～469.据2000年统计数据显示,平均每天有399艘船通过马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡,这可以理解为每3.6分钟通过一艘。⑤Shigeki Sakamoto,“Non-State Actors”Role in the Co-operative Mechanism for the Straits of Malacca and Singapore-Seeking to Substantiate UNCLOS Article 43,paper presented at the International Symposium on Safety and Protection of the Marine Environment in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Kuala Lumpur,2008,p.2.2004年,有报道称每天有超过900艘船从新加坡海峡通行,这意味着每1.6分钟有一艘船经过新加坡海峡。⑥Government of Singapore,Case Concerning Sovereignty Over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,Middle Rocks and South Ledge(Malaysia/Singapore):Memorial of Singapore, 2004,at http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/130/14133.pdf,pp.10～11,1 May 2012.英国广播公司新闻报道称2010年一年内,马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡航行量是苏伊士运河航行量的近6倍。①BBC News,Singapore Warns of Threat to Tankers in Malacca Strait,at http://news.bbc. co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8549053.stm,1 May 2012.统计数据显示,世界上最繁忙的港口大多位于东亚国家,包括中国和韩国,其中新加坡排名第二,如下列表2所示:

表2 2008年世界最繁忙港口

在航运交通方面,马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡仅次于邻接英国、法国和比利时的欧洲关键制扼点多佛海峡,①Euan Graham,Japan’s Sea Lane Security,1940—2004:A matter of life and death,Oxford:Routledge,2006,pp.26～27.估计每天有1100万桶石油通过马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡。②Energy and Maritime Security,paper presented at the“The 3rd IISS Regional Security Summit:The Manama Dialogue,Manama,Bahrain”,2006,p.46.油轮和货轮运送大量的石油、煤炭、铁矿石和矿产到东南亚、东北亚的经济中心,而在相反方向的航线上,数以百万计的集装箱流入全球各地的消费市场。③Joshua H.Ho,Enhancing Safety,Security and Environmental Protection of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore:The Co-operative Mechanism,Ocean Development and International Law,Vol.40,No.2,2009,pp.233～234.

二、拟建的马六甲海峡大桥

最近,马六甲海峡伙伴私人有限公司提出一项建造一座连接印尼苏门答腊廖内省港口城市杜迈和马来西亚马六甲市大桥的计划,④The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.该项目的基础工程已于2006年开始,研究表明,该桥梁工程在技术上是可行的。⑤The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.如果该项目贯彻实施,大桥建设估计将耗资125亿美元,中国进出口银行已同意出资桥梁工程总成本的85%。⑥The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.

这座长达127.92公里的拟建大桥被认为能够给两国带来新的经济机会,特别是对贸易和旅游业的刺激。⑦Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Introduction,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.马来西亚将承担48.68公里的桥梁建设,而剩下的79.24公里则由印度尼西亚完成。⑧Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Introduction,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.图2标明了横跨马六甲海峡的大桥长度。

然而,印尼政府已经宣布他们将优先考虑建造巽他海峡大桥,而非马六甲海峡大桥。①Jimmy Hitipeuw,Indonesia to Prioritize Sunda Strait Bridge,2011,at http://english. kompas.com/read/2010/12/21/14305586/Indonesia.to.Prioritize.Sunda.Strait.Bridge-5,1 May 2012.印尼政府打算先通过巽他海峡大桥项目使爪哇和苏门答腊连成一体,成为一个经济发展中心。②Jimmy Hitipeuw,Indonesia to Prioritize Sunda Strait Bridge,2011,at http://english. kompas.com/read/2010/12/21/14305586/Indonesia.to.Prioritize.Sunda.Strait.Bridge-5,1 May 2012.

三、厄勒大桥

拟建中的马六甲海峡大桥(长127.92公里)可能类似于连接丹麦首都哥本哈根和瑞典马尔默的厄勒大桥,③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.1～3.该大桥长16公里,包括桥梁和隧道,横跨厄勒海峡,行车铁路两用,连接了两个国家,于2000年6月正式向公众开放。④Tage Skjött Larsen,Ulf Paulsson and Sten Wandel,Logistic in theÖresund Region After the Bridge,European Journal of Operational Research,Vol.144,2003,pp.247～248.当提出横跨厄勒海峡建设厄勒大桥时,该计划受到了航运界的批评,认为其将妨碍厄勒海峡的航运流量。因此,德国向国际海事组织提交了一份暂停大桥建设的议案。⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.

作为妥协,瑞典建议大桥应该有两种特征的设计:一半是桥梁,一半是隧道。⑥Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.这种妥协的主张使得更大的船只可以通行厄勒海峡,也将导致大桥的建设支出比原计划中的预算成本增加三倍。⑦Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.目前,厄勒大桥每年通行六百万辆车,铁路运送八百万人次横跨厄勒海峡。①Terri Mapes,The Oresund Bridge:The Connection of Denmark&Sweden,at http://goscandinavia.about.com/od/denmar1/qt/oresundbridge.htm,1 May 2012.除了厄勒大桥,拟建的马六甲海峡大桥也类似于拟建的长18公里的费马恩大桥,该桥将连接德国和丹麦,并减少哥本哈根和汉堡之间的行车时间。②Bloomberg Businessweek,Germany,Denmark to Build Mega Bridge:The 11-mile Span Across the Baltic Sea Will be One of Europe’s Largest Works Projects,2007,at http:// www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2007/gb2007072_815071.htm,1 May 2012.这项工程预计在2018年竣工,但已经遭到来自环境保护主义者和德国地方当局的反对,称其并不必要。③Bloomberg Businessweek,Germany,Denmark to Build Mega Bridge:The 11-mile Span Across the Baltic Sea Will be One of Europe’s Largest Works Projects,2007,at http:// www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2007/gb2007072_815071.htm,1 May 2012.

四、拟建的大桥及其潜在意义

鉴于马六甲海峡本身的繁忙交通,拟建的大桥计划很可能经历与厄勒大桥类似的抨击,一旦马六甲海峡大桥计划实施,任何对计划的修改提议都可能大幅增加桥梁的造价。④Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.

据预计,如此庞大工程,不仅会对大桥两岸沿海生态系统造成不利影响,也将从水文、环境和经济角度对海峡整体造成影响。⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.洋流的运动和速度将因支撑桥梁的桥墩而发生变化,并可能改变海峡的性质。⑥Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.例如,架设桥墩区域的海底生态系统将因打桩工程和建筑材料的安置遭到不良影响。⑦Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.从环境角度来看,因马方桥梁施工现场靠近巴东甘文丁这一玳瑁龟的重要巢区,该项目将侵犯该海洋物种的筑巢地。①Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.而且大桥建设本身将改变海峡的海底生态系统,这可能为该区域的渔业活动和海洋、沿海旅游业带来潜在的负面影响。②Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.

大桥的建设将会导致马六甲海峡大部分的分道通航制区域关闭,这将造成潜在的船舶航行危险,从而限制水路交通流。③Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.大桥的建设以及完工以后大桥的很多混凝土支柱,不仅会降低船只通过海峡的航行速度,也为大型集装箱船和油轮通过此区域带来困难。④Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.航运交通变慢将导致海峡拥堵,最终可能导致海上事故。⑤Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.这些事故导致的石油、化学和有毒物质泄漏可能危及马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡敏感的海洋环境。这也意味着,通过海路运输的产品将需要更长的时间和更高的运输成本,世界范围内的市场售价也将提高。⑥Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.大桥的建设也可以看作是与1982年《联合国海洋法公约》第三部分有关所有船只在用于国际航行海峡时享有不受阻碍的过境通行权的规定相违背。⑦马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡两端均连接公海/专属经济区的一部分,因此,适用《联合国海洋法公约》第三部分,特别是第37条和第38条第1款的过境通行,《联合国海洋法公约》第44条禁止海峡沿岸国阻碍或妨碍航行于海峡的船舶行使过境通行权。

工程竣工后,大桥将连接马来半岛和印度尼西亚苏门答腊岛。马来半岛位于环太平洋火山带以外的稳定大陆板块,⑧临近太平洋的大陆和岛弧边缘的由活跃火山带主导的环太平洋火山带,导致大陆边缘内和周围地区不稳定、地震活动频繁。这些区域包括智利和秘鲁安第斯山脉、中美洲、美国西部和加拿大、南阿拉斯加、阿留申群岛、勘察加半岛、千叶群岛、日本、马里亚纳群岛、汤加、斐济、新西兰、菲律宾和印度尼西亚。See W.G.Ernst,The Increasing Severity of Circumpacific Natural Disasters,International Geology Review,Vol.43,2001,pp.380～381.而苏门答腊岛则位于主要地震活动区的环太平洋火山带上,受到地震和海啸的威胁。⑨The Pacific‘Ring of Fire’,2009,at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8284372.stm,1 May 2012.2004年被海啸摧毁的亚齐省充分表明该区易受这些自然灾害侵袭,①Roland Cochard,Senaratne L Ranamukhaarachchi and Ganesh P.Shivakoti,The 2004 Tsunami in Aceh and Southern Thailand:A Review on Coastal Ecosystems,Wave Hazards and Vulnerability,Perspectives in Plant Ecology,Evolution and Systematics,Vol.10, 2008,pp.4～5;Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt. Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009,p.3.如果再次发生地震或海啸,大桥遭到直接冲击,可能造成严重损坏,②Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.马来西亚和印度尼西亚的经济也将因为桥梁全部或部分破坏受到不利影响。③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.海峡内的船舶运输将会因为桥梁碎片散落海上而受阻,类似渔业和旅游业的经济活动将受到重创。④Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.3～4.然而,该项目的支持者,马六甲海峡伙伴私人有限公司声称桥址位于无任何断层的欧亚板块,⑤Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Geological Evaluation,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.尽管距项目现场约100公里是危险的地震带,在过去一万年却没有活跃、频繁的地震活动记录。⑥Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Geological Evaluation,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.

另一个问题是大桥是否真能促进两国的经济利益,随后对大桥的使用能否收回建桥成本?建桥的成本将导致马来西亚和印度尼西亚债台高筑,这将转嫁给桥梁使用者高额的过桥费。⑦Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.13.对比厄勒大桥所处的斯堪的纳维亚地区,马来西亚和印度尼西亚都是发展中国家,没有斯堪的纳维亚半岛相对较高的生活水平,如果征收的过桥费太高,大部分市民可能避免使用大桥,并恢复轮渡或乘船的方式来横渡马六甲海峡。⑧Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.13.

在旅游业方面,大桥可能会吸引更多的游客来马来西亚和印度尼西亚,但这并不能得到保证。由于两国都处于热带气候环境,雷雨在夜晚是很自然的现象,在这种天气里开车通过海峡是很危险的。如果桥上没有很多车辆行驶,驾驶员很可能遭遇劫持和其他犯罪活动,如公路抢劫和劫车。①Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.14.桥梁的实质长度可能达127.92公里,这将使当局难以保障司机的安全。②Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.14.

位于马来西亚这边的马六甲是大桥的一个战略要地,因为马六甲市和马来西亚其他主要城市,包括吉隆坡、布城、柔佛以及邻近的新加坡距离都不太远,③T Bunnell,PA Barter and S Morshidi,City Profile:Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan Area:A Globalising City-Region,Cities,Vol.19,2002,pp.364～365.这些城市都有良好的高速公路连接马六甲市。④马来西亚半岛西海岸有马来西亚最长的高速公路,即绵延850公里,从北部泰国边界到南部新山市的南北高速公路项目。这条高速公路开通于1994年,将马六甲市与马来西亚其他主要城市,如吉隆坡、布城、莎阿南、怡保、乔治城(槟城)、新山市以及邻近的新加坡很好的连接起来。See Thomas Williamson,Malaysia’s National Expressway,Space& Culture,Vol.6,No.2,2003,pp.110～131.而在印尼这边的杜迈则不是同样具有战略性的要地,因为它是一个人口相对较少的城市,在2008年时约有21789人,并不是印尼的主要城市,且距离印尼其他主要城市较远,如雅加达、万隆、泗水、棉兰、巴邻旁和巴东,⑤Sivapalan Selvadurai,Obstacles in Cross-Border Trade:Case of Dumai,Riau,Maritime Institute of Malaysia Bulletin,Vol.17,No.1,2010,p.20.而且,杜迈没有与这些城市连接的良好高速公路网络。⑥在印尼的道路使用者面临城市道路交通高峰延误、城市以外或乡村路况不好导致旅途时间漫长的问题。2009年全球竞争力指数中,印尼的道路基础设施可用性在134个国家中排第94位,印尼的高速公路集中在爪哇的主要城市,偏远地区的道路条件往往是最恶劣的。See Prakarsa:Road Development,Journal of the Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative, Vol.5,2011,pp.3～7;Justine Vaisutis,Indonesia,Australia:Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd,2007,pp.380～381.拟建的大桥计划如果是连接马六甲市和印尼其他重要城市,特别是雅加达,才会是切实可行的。随着许多廉价航空公司的出现,如该地区的亚洲航空、三佛齐航空和狮航都提供负担得起的航班服务,空运可能成为运输的首选。⑦Justine Vaisutis,Indonesia,Australia:Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd,2007,pp.378～382.印尼首都雅加达距离杜迈约1063公里。

因此,在印尼雅加达或爪哇其他地方的居民如果要去马来西亚,更实际的方式是直飞吉隆坡,而不是开很长时间的车到杜迈再过桥。对打算去苏门答腊岛或爪哇的马来西亚居民来说,飞行将因其廉价的运输模式,且节约时间而超过桥梁成为首选。

五、结 论

马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡是航运和许多其他经济产业活动的重要水路。在航运方面,其是最繁忙的海峡之一,仅次于连接大西洋和北海的欧洲重要制扼点多佛海峡。随着中国作为亚洲领先经济强国的崛起,马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡作为关键海上交通线的重要性绝不能低估,这已被海峡中船舶通行量每年都在增加这一事实所证明。近期提出的横跨马六甲海峡建设大桥的计划引起了正面和负面的不一反应。

需要指出的是拟建的大桥可能会刺激马六甲海峡地区及周围地区经济发展,然而,正如本文所讨论的,拟建的大桥也存在明显的缺点。大桥的建设可能不仅会对马六甲海峡海洋环境,也会对国际航运交通流和沿岸国家的经济造成不利影响。考虑到这些因素,建设一座连接马六甲和杜迈的桥可能无法推进马来西亚和印度尼西亚两国之间的经济增长,同时,建造这座大桥可能会为通过马六甲海峡的国际航运带来潜在危险,因其增加了航海事故和海洋污染发生的可能性。

(中译:邓云成 所在单位:上海交通大学)

Ⅰ.Introduction

The entrance to the Strait of Malacca is located between Ujung Baka at the northernmost tip of Sumatra and Lem Voalan in Phuket Island in Thailand.①Executive Summary,in H.M.Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspectiv e,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,xiii～xvi.The Strait is very wide at its gateway to the Andaman Sea,which is about 200nautical miles in breadth.①Amelia Emran,The Regulation of Vessel-Source Pollution in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,University of Wollongong Master of Maritime Studies Research Thesis,2007, p.9.It separates mainland Malay Peninsular from the Indonesian island of Sumatra,forming a funnel-shaped waterway as it narrows to the south.From One Fathom Bank(Permatang Sedepa)the breadth of the Strait of Malacca on either shore is less than 50 nautical miles and it narrows to only 8.4 nautical miles where it ends in areas between Malaysia’s Tanjung Piai and Indonesia’s Pulau Karimun Kecil and subsequently joins the Strait of Singapore,which is located between Singapore,south coast of Eastern Johor and the Riau Islands in Indonesia.②H.M.Ibrahim,Hairil Anuar Husin and Daneswari Sivaguru,The Straits of Malacca:Setting the Scene,in H.M.Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspective,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,pp.32～33;J.Ashley Roach,Enhancing Maritime Security in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Journal of International Affairs,2005,at http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-140163623/enhancing-maritime-security-straits.html,1 May 2012.

The Strait of Singapore is approximately 60.8 nautical miles in length having width not more than 8.639 nautical miles and it opens up to the larger South China Sea that acts as a connector to the Pacific Ocean.③Michael Leifer,International Straits of the World,Malacca/Singapore/Indonesia:Sijthoff &Noordhoff,1978,pp.58～60;M.I.Bird,W.C.Pang and K.Lambeck,The Age and Origin of the Straits of Singapore,Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, Vol.241,2006,p.531;I.M.Andi Arsana and Farid Yuniar Sumaryo,Geospatial Aspects of Maritime Boundary Delimitations in the Singapore Strait involving Indonesia,Malaysia and Singapore,paper presented at the FIG Congress 2010:Facing the Challenges-Building the Capacity,Sydney,2010,p.8.The International Hydrographic Organization(IHO)regards the Strait of Malacca and the Strait of Singapore,hydrographically,as separate straits,④Limits of Oceans and Seas,150-XII-1971,International Hydrographic Organization, 1953,p.23.despite the fact that they have been regarded as one strait.

Located within the coral triangle on the Sunda Continental Plate,both the Straits of Malacca and Singapore are regarded as important fishing grounds, possessing sensitive marine environment.⑤H.Rezai,F.M.Yusoff,A.Kawamura,A.Arshad and B.H.R.Othman,Zooplankton biomass in the Straits of Malacca,Indian Journal of Marine Sciences,Vol.31,No.3, 2003,pp.222～225;Siti Nazatul Izura bt Mohd Ishak and Tan Kim Hooi,Fisheries in the Straits of Malacca,in H.M Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspective,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,p.88.The many beautiful islands,beaches and unique coastal and marine environment such as mangrove forests,mudflats and peat swamps dotting along the Straits have generated economic returns through the thriving eco-tourism industries taking place in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore.①Chua Thia-Eng,S.Adrian Ross and Huming Yu,Malacca Straits Environmental Profile, GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in East Asian Seas,1997,pp.85～92.

In the eyes of the international shipping community,the Straits of Malacca and Singapore are seen as strategic sea lines of communication that facilitate global trade.②Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli,The Application of Compulsory Pilotage in Straits Used for International Navigation:A Study of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Asian Politics &Policy,Vol.3,No.4,2011,pp.501～526.These straits form the shortest route connecting the Middle-Eastern oil suppliers with the economies of East Asia namely China,Japan and South Korea.③About two thirds of Middle-Eastern or Gulf oil exports go to Asian countries namely Japan,China and South Korea.See Michael Richardson,The Sea Lane and Energy Security Lifeline between the Persian Gulf and Asia,in Andrew Forbes ed.,Asian Energy Security:Regional Cooperation in the Malacca Strait,Australia:Sea Power Centre,2008,pp. 118～119.In 1987,the number of transiting traffic stood at 30,377 per annum,④Abdul Rani Abdullah,Norhayati Mohd Tahir,Tong Soo Loong,Tafazzal Mohd Hoque and Abdul Halim Sulaiman,The GEF/UNDP/IMO Malacca Straits Demonstration Project: Sources of Pollution,Marine Pollution Bulletin,Vol.39,1999,p.232.and it increased gradually up to approximately 74,000 vessel movements in 2010.

Tab.1 Shipping Traffic in the Strait of Malacca 2000—2010(with the year 2020 projection)

In 1998,it was said that an average of 600 vessels sailed the Straits of Malacca and Singapore every day.⑤Raja Malik Kamaruzaman,Navigational Safety in the Strait of Malacca,Singapore Journal of International&Comparative Laws,Vol.2,No.2,1998,pp.468～469.According to statistics for 2000,a daily average of 399 vessels passed through the Straits of Malacca and Singapore whichtranslated to one every 3.6 minutes.①Shigeki Sakamoto,“Non-State Actors”Role in the Co-operative Mechanism for the Straits of Malacca and Singapore-Seeking to Substantiate UNCLOS Article 43,Paper presented at the International Symposium on Safety and Protection of the Marine Environment in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Kuala Lumpur,2008,p.2.In 2004,it was reported that more than 900 ships sailed the Strait of Singapore every day,which meant that one ship would pass the Strait of Singapore in every 1.6 minutes.②Government of Singapore,Case Concerning Sovereignty Over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,Middle Rocks and South Ledge(Malaysia/Singapore):Memorial of Singapore, 2004,at http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/130/14133.pdf,pp.10～11,1 May 2012.The British Broadcasting Corporation(BBC)News reported in 2010 that yearly,the Straits of Malacca and Singapore accommodated almost six times the volume of navigational traffic that went through the Suez Canal.③BBC News,Singapore Warns of Threat to Tankers in Malacca Strait,at http://news.bbc. co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8549053.stm,1 May 2012.Statistical data have shown that most of the world’s busiest ports are located in East Asian countries including China and South Korea,with Singapore ranked as the second busiest,as shown in the following Table 2:

Tab.2 World’s Busiest Ports 2008 Note:Ports in bold are those located along the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

(Continued from the previous page)

In terms of navigational traffic,the Straits of Malacca and Singapore came second only to the Dover Strait,a crucial European chokepoint bordered by the United Kingdom,France and Belgium.①Euan Graham,Japan’s Sea Lane Security,1940-2004:A matter of life and death,Oxford:Routledge,2006,pp.26～27.An estimated 11 million barrels of oil pass the Straits of Malacca and Singapore daily.②Energy and Maritime Security,Paper presented at the“The 3rd IISS Regional Security Summit:The Manama Dialogue,Manama,Bahrain”,2006,p.46.Tankers and bulk carriers ferry vast quantities of oil,coal,iron ore and minerals to the economic centres of Southeast and Northeast Asia while on the other direction,millions of containers flow to feed consumer markets from all over the globe.③Joshua H.Ho,Enhancing Safety,Security and Environmental Protection of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore:The Co-operative Mechanism,Ocean Development and International Law,Vol.40,No.2,2009,pp.233～234.

Ⅱ.The Proposed Strait of Malacca Bridge

Recently,a plan has been proposed by the Straits of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.(SOMP)to build a bridge to link the Indonesian port-city of Dumai in the Sumatran province of Riau with the Malaysian city of Malacca.④The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.The groundwork for the project started in 2006 and studies show that the bridgeproject is technically feasible.①The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.Should the project be carried out,the bridge would cost US$12.5 billion.The Import-Export Bank of China has agreed to finance 85%of the total cost of the bridge project.②The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.

This proposed 127.92 km long bridge is said to be capable of fostering new economic opportunities between the two countries particularly in stimulating trade and the tourism industry.③Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Introduction,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.Malaysia will undertake to build 48.68 km of the bridge while Indonesia will construct the remaining 79.24 km.④Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Introduction,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.Fig.2 illustrates the length of the bridge spanning across the breadth of the Strait of Malacca.

However,the Indonesian government has announced that they would give priority to the construction of the Strait of Sunda Bridge over the Strait of Malacca Bridge.⑤Jimmy Hitipeuw,Indonesia to Prioritize Sunda Strait Bridge,2011,at http://english. kompas.com/read/2010/12/21/14305586/Indonesia.to.Prioritize.Sunda.Strait.Bridge-5,1 May 2012.The Indonesian government intends to first integrate Java-Sumatra as a center of economic development with the Sunda Strait Bridge project.⑥Jimmy Hitipeuw,Indonesia to Prioritize Sunda Strait Bridge,2011,at http://english. kompas.com/read/2010/12/21/14305586/Indonesia.to.Prioritize.Sunda.Strait.Bridge-5,1 May 2012.

Ⅲ.Oresund Bridge

The proposed 127.92 km Strait of Malacca Bridge is likely to resemble the Oresund Bridge that connects the Danish capital of Copenhagen in Denmark and Malmo in Sweden.①Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.1～3.The 16 km combined bridge and tunnel stands over the Oresund Sound and connects both nations by road and rail,and it was officially opened to public in June 2000.②Tage Skjött Larsen,Ulf Paulsson and Sten Wandel,Logistic in theÖresund Region After the Bridge,European Journal of Operational Research,Vol.144,2003,pp.247～248.When the construction of the bridge over the Oresund Sound was proposed,it received adverse criticism from the shipping community as it was thought that it would hamper shipping flow in the Oresund Sound.As a result,Germany submitted a proposal to the International Maritime Organization(IMO)to suspend the construction of the bridge.③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.

As a compromise,Sweden suggested that the bridge should be designed in two features:half a bridge and half a tunnel.④Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.This compromise was advocated to allow bigger ships to navigate across the Oresund Sound.It resulted in the increase of the construction expenditure of the bridge to three times more than the cost that was budgeted for in the original plan.⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.Currently the Oresund Bridge carries 6 million vehicles per year with the railway link transporting 8 million people annually across the Oresund Sound.⑥Terri Mapes,The Oresund Bridge:The Connection of Denmark&Sweden,at http://goscandinavia.about.com/od/denmar1/qt/oresundbridge.htm,1 May 2012.Besides the Oresund Bridge,the proposed Strait of Malacca Bridge will also resemble the proposed18 km Fehmarn Belt Bridge that will connect Germany and Denmark and cut journey time between Copenhagen and Hamburg.①Bloomberg Businessweek,Germany,Denmark to Build Mega Bridge:The 11-mile Span Across the Baltic Sea Will be One of Europe’s Largest Works Projects,2007,at http:// www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2007/gb2007072_815071.htm,1 May 2012.This project,which has received opposition from environmentalists and local authorities in German,calling it to be unnecessary,is expected to be completed in 2018.②Bloomberg Businessweek,Germany,Denmark to Build Mega Bridge:The 11-mile Span Across the Baltic Sea Will be One of Europe’s Largest Works Projects,2007,at http:// www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2007/gb2007072_815071.htm,1 May 2012.

Ⅳ.The Proposed Bridge and Its Potential Implications

Given the busy nature of the Strait of Malacca,it is likely that similar impacts to the Oresund Bridge experience,would occur if the Strait of Malacca Bridge plan were to be implemented and it is likely that any proposed modifications to the plan would also substantially increase the price of the construction of the bridge.③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.

It is anticipated that such a huge project would not only adversely affect the coastal ecosystems on both shores of the bridge;it would also affect the Strait as a whole,from hydrological,environmental and economic perspectives.④Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.The movement and speed of currents would be changed by the existence of pillars holding up the bridge,and could potentially alter the nature of the Strait.⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.For example,the seabed ecosystems of the areas where the bridge would be erected would suffer from adverse impacts as a result of piling worksand the placement of construction materials.①Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.From the environmental perspective,the project would encroach the nesting grounds of the hawksbill turtle (penyu karah)as the construction site of the bridge on the Malaysian side would be around Padang Kemunting,an important nesting area for this species of marine animal.②Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009,p.3.Given the fact that the construction of the Bridge would itself alter the seabed ecosystems of the Strait,it has the potential to negatively impact the fisheries activities and the marine and coastal tourism industry in that area.③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009,p.3.

The construction would have the effect of closing down a large portion of the Traffic Separation Scheme(TSS)areas of the Strait of Malacca,which would result in potential navigational hazards for ships and thus,hamper traffic flow through the waterway.④Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.The construction and presence of the bridge with its many concrete pillars would not only reduce the speed of vessels sailing through the Strait but would also cause difficulty for large container vessels and oil tankers navigating through this area.⑤Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.Slower movement of shipping traffic would cause congestion in the Strait and this may eventually lead to maritime accidents.⑥Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.Spills of oil,chemical and noxious substances from such accidents could jeopardise the sensitive marine environment of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore.It would also mean that transits by shipping traffic would take a longer time and higher shipping costs would increase prices for products sold in markets worldwide.⑦Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.The construction of the bridge may also be seen as contradicting Part III of the United Nations Convention on the Lawof the Sea 1982(LOSC)that promotes the unimpeded right of transit passage for all vessels through straits used for international navigation.①The Straits of Malacca and Singapore are straits that connect one part of the high seas/ Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ)to another part of the high seas/EEZ.Therefore transit passage is applicable in these Straits as provided for in Part III of the LOSC particularly in Articles 37 and 38(1).Article 44 of the LOSC prohibits States bordering straits to hamper or impede the right of transit passage exercised by vessels navigating the straits.

Upon completion,the bridge would connect the Malay Peninsula with the Indonesian island of Sumatra.The Malay Peninsula is located on a stable continent which is outside the Pacific Ring of Fire.②The Pacific Ring of Fire guards the margins of the continents and island arcs that border the Pacific Ocean which are mainly dominated by active volcanic belts,causing the areas situated within and around the continental margin to be instable and are subjected to frequent seismic activities.The areas include the Chilean and Peruvian Andes,Central America,the western United States(U.S.)and Canada,southern Alaska,the Aleutians,Kamchatka Peninsula,the Kuriles,Japan,the Marianas,Tonga-Fiji,New Zealand,the Philippines and Indonesia.See W.G.Ernst,The Increasing Severity of Circumpacific Natural Disasters,International Geology Review,Vol.43,2001,pp.380～381.Sumatra,however,is located within the Pacific Ring of Fire,an area with major seismic activities,and is exposed to the threat of earthquakes and tsunamis.③The Pacific‘Ring of Fire’,2009,at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8284372.stm,1 May 2012.The 2004 tsunami incident that ravaged Aceh manifestly demonstrated that the region is exposed to these kinds of natural calamities.④Roland Cochard,Senaratne L Ranamukhaarachchi and Ganesh P.Shivakoti,The 2004 Tsunami in Aceh and Southern Thailand:A Review on Coastal Ecosystems,Wave Hazards and Vulnerability,Perspectives in Plant Ecology,Evolution and Systematics,Vol.10, 2008,pp.4～5;Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt. Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009,p.3.Should the bridge take a direct hit from another tremor or a tsunami,it is likely to be badly damaged.⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.The economy of both Malaysia and Indonesia would suffer adversely should the bridge collapse entirely or in parts.⑥Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.Shipping transits in the Strait would be hampered with the debris of the shattered bridge dispersed through the Strait and economic activi-ties such as fisheries and tourism would be heavily impacted.①Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.3～4.However,the proponent of the project,the SOMP contended that the site of the bridge is located on a Eurasian plate outside any fault line.②Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Geological Evaluation,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.Though there is an unfavorable seismic zone approximately 100 km away from the project site,there has been no known record of active or frequent seismic activities in the last ten thousand years.③Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Geological Evaluation,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.

Another issue which arises is whether the bridge could really foster economic benefits for both countries.Would the level of cost involved in constructing the bridge be justified by subsequent usage?The cost of constructing the bridge would result in high debt liabilities for both Malaysia and Indonesia which would be passed on to bridge users in higher tolls.④Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.13.In contrast to the Oresund Bridge in the Scandinavian region,both Malaysia and Indonesia are developing States and do not enjoy the relatively high standards of living of Scandinavia.If the toll imposed on the bridge is too expensive,the public at large may refrain from using it and may revert to using ferries and boats to cross the Strait of Malacca.⑤Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.13.

In terms of tourism,the Bridge may attract more tourists into both countries but this cannot be guaranteed.With the tropical weather conditions which are common in both Malaysia and Indonesia,thunder storms are a natural phenomenon in the evening.Driving across the Strait would be dangerous in this type of weather.If there is not much vehicle traffic on the bridge,drivers may likely then be exposed to hijacking and other criminal activities like highway robberies and carjacking.⑥Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.14.The substantial length of the bridge which is likely to be up to 127.92 km would make it difficult for the authorities to maintainthe safety and security of drivers.①Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.14.

Malacca on the Malaysian side is a strategic site for the bridge as Malacca and other major cities in Malaysia including Kuala Lumpur,Putrajaya,Johor Bahru and neighbouring Singapore are not too far away from Malacca.②T Bunnell,PA Barter and S Morshid,City Profile:Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan Area:A Globalising City-Region,Cities,Vol.19,2002,pp.364～365.These cities are served with good highway connections that link them to the city of Malacca.③The west coast States of Peninsula Malaysia are well-served with the longest expressway in Malaysia,namely the PLUS(Projek Lebuhraya Utara Selatan/North-South Highway Project)that stretches for 850km from the Thai border in the north to Johor Bahru in the south.With the opening of this expressway in 1994,Malacca,is well-connected with other major cities in Malaysia like Kuala Lumpur,Putrajaya,Shah Alam,Ipoh,Georgetown(Penang),Johor Bahru and also neighboring Singapore.See Thomas Williamson,Malaysia’s National Expressway,Space&Culture,Vol.6,No.2,2003,pp.110～131.However,Dumai is not a similarly strategic site on the Indonesian side as it only has a relatively small population of around 215,789 in 2008,is not a major city in Indonesia and is distant from other main Indonesian cities like Jakarta,Bandung,Surabaya,Medan,Palembang and Padang.④Sivapalan Selvadurai,Obstacles in Cross-Border Trade:Case of Dumai,Riau,Maritime Institute of Malaysia Bulletin,Vol.17,No.1,2010,p.20.Dumai is not served with a good network of expressways connecting it with these other cities.⑤Road users in Indonesia have faced the problems of mounting traffic delays on city roads and long journey times due to poor road conditions outside the cities or in rural areas.The Global Competitiveness Index in 2009 ranked Indonesia 94thout of 134 countries in the availability of road infrastructure.Expressways in Indonesia are mainly concentrated in main cities in Java and road conditions in remote areas are often in the worst condition. See Prakarsa:Road Development,Journal of the Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative, Vol.5,2011,pp.3～7;Justine Vaisutis,Indonesia,Australia:Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd,2007,pp.380～381.The proposed bridge plan would only be practically viable if it connects Malacca with another major city or cities in Indonesia,particularly Jakarta. With the emergence of many budget airlines like Air Asia,Sriwijaya Air and Lion Air in the region that provide affordable flight services,flying is likely to be the preferred method of transportation.⑥Justine Vaisutis,Indonesia,Australia:Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd,2007,pp.378～382.Jakarta,the capital city of Indonesia,is approximately 1063 km away from Dumai.

So,it would be more practical for Indonesians that reside in Jakarta or other parts of Java,wishing to come to Malaysia to fly directly to Kuala Lumpurinstead of driving a long way to Dumai to use the bridge.For Malaysians who intend to go to Sumatra or Java,flying would be the preferred option over using the bridge as it is a cheaper mode of transportation and not as time consuming.

Ⅴ.Conclusion

The Straits of Malacca and Singapore are important waterways for shipping activities as well as many other economic industries.In terms of shipping,the Straits are among the busiest and come second only to the Dover Strait,an important European chokepoint linking the Atlantic Ocean to the North Sea.With the rise of China as Asia’s leading economic powerhouse,the importance of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore as crucial sea lines of communication could never be underestimated.This is justified by the increasing number of ships sailing these Straits each year.The recent proposed plan to build a bridge across the Strait of Malacca has sparked mixed reactions,both positive and negative.

It is to be noted that the proposed bridge may stimulate economic development in areas within and around the Strait of Malacca region.However,as discussed in this article,the construction of the proposed bridge may also have certain downsides.The construction of the proposed bridge would likely cause adverse impacts not only to the marine environment of the Strait of Malacca, but also to the flow of the international shipping traffic and the economic wellbeing of the littoral States.Taking these considerations into account,having a bridge connection between Malacca and Dumai is not likely to boost economic growth between the two nations of Malaysia and Indonesia.It could also be seen as a potential major navigational hazard for international shipping traffic transiting the Strait of Malacca by raising the likelihood of maritime accidents and marine pollution.

Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli*

Bridges across Critical International Shipping Ways:A Study of the Proposed Strait of Malacca Bridge

Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli*

The Straits of Malacca and Singapore are two of the most important maritime chokepoints in the world.These waterways are also regarded as important economic lifelines for the littoral States of Malaysia,Indonesia and Singapore.The recent proposal to build a bridge across the Strait of Malacca connecting the Malaysian State of Malacca to Dumai in Indonesia has sparked various reactions both positive and negative.This article discusses the potential implications should the construction of the proposed bridge take place across the Strait of Malacca.This article concludes by asserting whether or not the construction of the bridge would positively benefit the regional and the global economy as a whole,both the Straits of Malacca and Singapore are important shipping ways and any interference to the flow of international shipping traffic would be detrimental to the well-being of the global economy.

International Law;Straits of Malacca and Singapore;Shipping

*Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli,所在单位:马来西亚回教科学大学回教法&法律学院。电子邮箱:hazmirusli@usim.edu.my。

②American Association of Port Authority,World Port Ranking-2008,at http://aapa.files. cms-plus.com/Statistics/WORLD%20PORT%20RANKINGS%2020081.pdf,1 May 2012.

*Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli,Faculty of Syariah&Law,Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia.

E-mail:hazmirusli@usim.edu.my.

④American Association of Port Authority,World Port Ranking-2008,at http://aapa.files. cms-plus.com/Statistics/WORLD%20PORT%20RANKINGS%2020081.pdf,1 May 2012.