Abstract

4 The Ontology, Perspective and Paradigm of General Security: An Analysis of “Degree of Peace-Cooperation” of Relations

YU Xiaofeng

[Abstract] Analyzing the ontology and perspective of security based on the relationship ontology in Chinese philosophy, and constructing a Chinese paradigm for the study of security theories is an important effort to contribute a China’s solution to global security governance. It is a very crucial ontological issue to be addressed concerning what kind of “reality” the security is. It is also an intractable epistemological question in relation to from what perspective should security be examined. An analysis of “degree of peace-cooperation” of relations provides a philosophical interpretation for the ontology, perspective and paradigm of security studies within the framework of a “general security theory”. Security is a relational reality and a shared order within a state of “peace-cooperation”. Security presents a “degree of peace-cooperation” of relations featuring a general connection between humans and the world. If the “degree of peace-cooperation” of relations indicates the degree of security that could be obtained, then security is a function of “degree of peace-cooperation”, and general security is a kind of security that presents the highest “degree of peace-cooperation” of relations between humanity and the world,which is “superior coexistence” among all actors. In other words, the general security highlights the appropriateness and suitability of “peace-cooperation”relations, whose state of security maintains “superior coexistence” among all actors.It is also the general harmony of all existing relations, thus providing a theoretical support for a holistic approach to national security and global security concept. The general security concept is a comprehensive security concept that incorporates various security components and security fields. It is an embodiment of the “field security” thinking and an integration of multiple spatiotemporal relations and diverse activity characteristics.

[Keywords] general security, ontology of security, perspective of security, paradigm of security, degree of peace-cooperation of relations

[Author] YU Xiaofeng, Director and Professor, Centre for Non-Traditional Security& Peaceful Development Studies, Zhejiang University (Hangzhou, 310058).

27 A Study on Recognition Security of States

ZENG Xianghong and CHEN Mingxia

[Abstract] Maintaining security constitutes the basis and an important motivation for State behaviors. National security includes both material security on the realistic dimension and identity security on the conceptual dimension. The core connotation of national identity security is the certainty of identity forged by the combination of external recognition and internal stability of national identity. Only by simultaneously obtaining ontological security and recognition security can the State ensure its identity security. Recognition security is a sense of satisfaction that derives from the recognition by others of the self-understanding held by an actor about its essential attributes. This sense of satisfaction has two sources: the fulfillment of the actor’s basic needs for recognition, and the smooth generation and development of the actor’s identity. More specifically, the foundation for the establishment of recognition security is the self-affirmation brought about by the consistency between the actor’s self-understanding and the other’s understanding of the actor. This self-affirmation is a positive result of the actor’s action of satisfying its recognition needs and realizing its identity generation, thus constituting a direct source of the actor’s sense of satisfaction, which ensures its sense of security in terms of recognition. On the contrary, the source of recognition insecurity is the self-doubt brought about by the inconsistency between the actor’s self-understanding and the other’s understanding of the actor. This self-doubt is a negative result of the actor’s inability to meet its recognition needs and the unsuccessful identity generation, which blocks the formation of the actor’s sense of satisfaction and thus leads to the sense of insecurity in terms of recognition. Recognition insecurity will cause the State to experience anxiety characterized by excessive worrying, and resentment dominated by the impulse to retaliate, both of which will prompt the State to engage in destructive behaviors of high uncertainty. The recognition security problem and its international consequences in the processes of national identity construction by Russia and Turkey can provide preliminary empirical verification for the theoretical findings on recognition security.

[Keywords] identity security, ontological security, recognition security, recognition and misrecognition, role identity

[Authors] ZENG Xianghong, Part-time Researcher at Center for Studies of Ethnic Groups in Northwest China and Professor at Institute for Central Asia Studies,Lanzhou University; CHEN Mingxia, Ph.D. Candidate at Center for Studies of Ethnic Groups in Northwest China and School of Politics and International Relations, Lanzhou University (Lanzhou, 730000).

56 The Escalation Behaviors of Weaker States in Asymmetric Territorial Disputes

LI Yuan and HAN Zhaoying

[Abstract] In territorial disputes with a stronger State, why does a weaker State initiate the use of force and escalate territorial disputes? The existing research has largely overlooked the asymmetric form of territorial disputes and the behavioral logic behind the weaker state’s choices. Due to the power gap between the disputing parties, the asymmetric territorial disputes have an important impact on the weaker state’s behaviors and the interaction between the weaker State and its stronger counterpart. The weaker State policymakers’ evaluation of the punishment possibility and the victim mentality of its domestic society are the two key contributing factors that affect the weaker state’s escalation behaviors in asymmetric territorial disputes.The policymakers’ supposition that the escalation behaviors will not trigger severe punishment from the stronger State could lead them to be optimistic about the cost-benefit outcome of their choices, which contributes to the weaker state’s efforts to escalate territorial disputes. The victim mentality that the weaker State develops in its interactions with the stronger State prompts it to accept the potential risks of using force, which constitutes a strategic motivation for the weaker State to escalate territorial disputes. Two cases, the Argentine-British Malvinas War of 1982 and the Russia-Georgia Conflict of 2008, can provide empirical evidence for this analytical framework. The paper contributes to a theoretical understanding of the outbreak and escalation of asymmetrical territorial disputes, and at the same time provide practical insights into the recurrence of territorial disputes in China’s periphery.

[Keywords] asymmetric territorial disputes, possibility of being punished, victim mentality, opportunity-motivation

[Authors] LI Yuan, Ph.D. Candidate at the Zhou Enlai School of Government,Nankai University; HAN Zhaoying, Professor at the Zhou Enlai School of Government,Nankai University (Tianjin, 300350).

81 Analysis of Pan-Securitization in the Context of the Weaponization of Interdependence: A Case Study of U.S. Technological Competition with China

DING Taifu and GAO Fei

[Abstract] As the weaponization of interdependence has unfolded in its theoretical and practical dimensions, there has been a dramatic shift in the perception of interdependence in a number of States. In the era of the weaponization of interdependence, the primary objective of States is not to make sure how to benefit from interdependence,but to ensure how to avoid losses from interdependence. The weaponization of interdependence has exacerbated security environments. Under the influence of the profound uncertainties in the international order, States have developed pan-securitized threat perceptions and deepened policy dilemmas in their pan-securitization practice.The U.S. technological competition with China is a typical case of the weaponization of interdependence. Beginning with the Obama administration, through the Trump and Biden administrations, the perception of pan-securitization has been formed and developed. The pan-securitization practice of the U.S. in its technological competition with China includes extremely broad import and export controls and investment review, unprecedented institutional reforms and industrial policy adjustments, as well as an all-encompassing multidimensional network of alliances and partners.Driven by the weaponization of interdependence, the Obama, Trump and Biden administrations have constantly strengthened their perception of pan-securitization and intensified technological competition with China by upgrading such means as “decoupling”, “small courtyard with a high fence” and “de-risking”, which constitutes the main line of U.S. strategic competition with China. Interdependence has a dual effect. The trade and technology war launched by the U.S. has jeopardized its own security and the stability of the global supply chain, not only dragging the U.S. into a technological, economic and alliance predicament, but also hindering the process of globalization and making the world slide into the danger of cold war confrontation.The U.S. policies that go against the trend of the era will eventually end up in failure.

[Keywords] weaponized interdependence, pan-securitization, U.S.-China relations,technological competition

[Authors] DING Taifu, Ph.D. Student at the Department of Diplomacy and Foreign Affairs Management, China Foreign Affairs University; GAO Fei, Vice President and Professor at the Department of Diplomacy and Foreign Affairs Management,China Foreign Affairs University (Beijing, 100037).

108 Germany’s Integrated Security Concept: Theoretical Origins,Historical Evolution and Practical Assessment

HUANG Mengmeng

[Abstract] Germany’s first National Security Strategy (NSS) after the Second World War is based on the concept of “integrated security”, which has a theoretical logic and historical lineage to follow. Germany’s integrated security concept emerged after the Cold War. It is an inherited development of the Europeanist concept of security, focusing on the stability of the economic and social order after the collapse of the bipolar order, rapid responses to extraterritorial conflicts, and non-traditional security with the involvement of both state and non-state actors. After the Crimean crisis, traditional military threats resurfaced in the European continent, making Germany’s integrated security policy emphasize both “defensiveness” and “resilience”.Given that the Russian-Ukrainian conflict has undermined the security order in Europe, Germany’s integrated security policy puts a higher premium on both national and mutual defense, aiming to enhance its economic and social resilience and promote the “de-risking” strategy through instruments of “diversification” and “alliance politics”. At the same time, the National Security Strategy also shows such characteristics as pan-securitization, value-orientation and power politics that try to enhance Germany’s visibility in the “Indo-Pacific” region. However, Germany’s integrated security policy still faces many obstacles. In terms of its defensiveness,Germany’s political commitment to enhance national defense is not yet matched by its military resources. As regards its resilience, Germany’s “de-risking” strategy is constrained by the changes in international power competition, China’s market dividends, disparate opinions of German political and business circles, and Germany’s domestic economic costs. Therefore, China should objectively view the impact of Germany’s security policy transformation.

[Keywords] integrated security concept, Germany’s National Security Strategy,economic de-risking, German security policy transformation

[Author] HUANG Mengmeng, Assistant Professor at the Institute of European Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (Beijing, 100732).

136 Conflict Levels and Efficacy of Engagement of International Non-Governmental Organizations in Conflict Mediation

ZHOU Yiqi and XU Yi

[Abstract] Since the end of the Cold War, internal conflicts gradually became the primary form of armed conflicts worldwide, and conflict mediation is a key component in building domestic peace for countries beset by internal conflicts.Against this backdrop, international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) have gradually emerged as active mediators in various conflicts of the current era.However, the mediation effectiveness of these INGOs is a subject of ongoing debate.On the one hand, they claim to be able to effectively mediate internal conflicts by virtue of their neutrality and moral standing. On the other hand, their lack of enforcement power hampers their effectiveness in implementation. Aiming to understand the mediation efficacy of INGOs, this paper attempts to explain their successes and failures in the mediation process. The theoretical framework of this paper posits that identifying the levels of conflict is crucial for understanding the mediation power of INGOs. Conflicts at different levels conform to different logics,which in turn produce various conflict situations and patterns. In lower-level conflicts,the fragmented and diversified nature of the conflict landscape is more suitable for the operations of INGOs. In higher-level conflicts, their lack of enforcement power becomes a significant disadvantage. Based on this logic, collaborating with sovereign States in mediation activities can enhance their mediation effectiveness. Supplemented by case studies to illustrate the theoretical process, this paper employs the African Peace Process dataset, regression models and heterogeneity analysis to verify these views. The empirical findings suggest that evaluating the mediation outcomes of INGOs needs to take into consideration qualifications like conflict levels and INGOs’interactions with multiple actors. The research indicates that INGOs should work closely with the mediation systems of sovereign States. On the premise of maintaining national sovereignty and international system stability, the effectiveness of conflict mediation can be greatly enhanced through the integration of the roles of sovereign States and INGOs.

[Keywords] conflict mediation, peace process, international non-governmental organizations, conflict levels

[Authors] ZHOU Yiqi, Associate Research Fellow, Shanghai Institutes for International Studies; XU Yi, M.A. Student at Shanghai Institutes for International Studies(Shanghai, 200233).