Viking History: Facts & Myths维京人历史之真真假假

瑞安·古德里奇 铁文霖

The Vikings were a seafaring people from the late eighth to early 11th century who established a name for themselves as traders， explorers and warriors. They discovered the Americas long before Columbus and could be found as far east as the distant reaches of Russia.

While these people are often attri-buted as savages raiding the more civil-ized nations for treasure and women， the motives and culture of the Viking people are much more diverse. These raiders also facilitated many changes throughout the lands from economics to warfare.

The Viking Age

Many historians commonly associate the term “Viking” to the Scandinavian term vikingr， a word for “pirate.” However， the term is meant to reference oversea expeditions， and was used as a verb by the Scandinavian people for when the men traditionally took time out of their summers to go “a Viking.” While many would believe these expeditions entailed the raiding of monasteries and cities along the coast， many expeditions were actually with the goal of trade and enlisting as foreign mercenaries.

The Viking Age generally refers to the period from A.D. 800， a few years after the earliest recorded raid， until the 1050s， a few years before the Norman Conquest of England in 1066， according to Angelo Forte， Richard D. Oram and Frederik Pedersen， authors of “Viking Empires” （Cambridge University Press， 2005）. During this time， the reach of the Scandinavian people extended to all corners of northern Europe， and many other nations found Vikings raiding their coasts. The farthest reported records of Vikings were in Baghdad for the trading of goods like fur， tusks and seal fat.

The Viking ship

At the heart of the Viking culture lies the Viking ship. These extraordin-ary vessels—longships in particular—shaped the lives of the sea-faring Norse1 and changed the course of European history.

Honed for more than 10 centuries， the ship-building skills of the Norse led to a variety of vessels—from small fishing boats and big-bellied cargo vessels to the famous lightning-fast longships used for raiding. But no matter the size， most of the ships were designed to be narrow in shape with short drafts2 （vertical distance between waterline and bottom of ship）， features that gave them high adaptability for use in the ocean and rivers.

The Vikings ship-building craft reached a high point in the 7th century when they invented the keel， a structural beam that runs from the bow to the stern3 and sits lower than the main body of the ship. This feature increased speed and stability and prevented unwanted lateral movement， according to Yachting & Boating World.

To begin the ship-building process， the Vikings would drive wedges into freshly-cut trees until the wood split along the grain4. Up to 20 great oaks might be cut down for a ship. The wood was shaped and arranged so that the planks fit together perfectly in a clinker construction5， overlapping like a fan. In clinker shipbuilding， the outside is started first， and then the frame is put inside it， according to the living history site Regia Anglorum. The ship was coated with a watertight mixture of tar-soaked animal hair， wool or moss and stabilized with iron rivets. The end result was an incredibly fast and flexible longship that nothing could catch.

The men rowed with a series of oars， supplemented with a large sail most likely made of wool. Rather than a rudder， the longships had a steerboard fastened to the right-hand side of the ship at the stern， according to Royal Museums Greenwich.

By the middle of the 9th century， the raids really picked up as word spread across the Norse region of Europes removable wealth. Norse villages and communities came together to build ships with the intention of improving their lives through the business of raiding. In 842， Vikings ruthlessly attacked Nantes on the French coast， and because of their ability to maneuver up rivers， they went on to raid towns as far inland as Paris， Limoges， Orleans， Tours and Nimes.

The Vikings longships were usually adorned with carved dragon heads at the bow， which were believed to keep evil spirits away. The dragon head coupled with a large square， red-striped sail would come to be known as the signature of the Vikings. The sight would strike fear into the hearts of Europeans for three centuries.

Viking myths

Many modern perceptions of Vikings found their origins through Catholic propaganda. Upon the sacking of multiple Christian facilities and the loss of countless relics and treasures， the Catholic ministry sought to dehumanize them. Until Queen Victorias rule of Britain， the Vikings were still portrayed as a violent and barbaric people. During the 19th and 20th centuries， perceptions changed to the point where Vikings were glamorized as noble savages with horned helmets， a proud culture and a feared prowess in battle.

With regards to the more popular Viking myths created through these misperceptions， the following are proven to be clearly false according to historical record：

Vikings wore horned helmets

Vikings traditionally went bareheaded or wore simple leather and metal-frame helmets with the occasional face guard. The idea behind horned helmets came about from the Viking revival during Victorias reign.

They were filthy and unkempt

Archaeologists find evidence on a regular basis of combs， razors， ear spoons and other grooming utensils that indicate the Viking people were very keen on maintaining personal hygiene.

They spent all their time raiding and warring

While raiding proved an excellent source of income， many of the Vikings held farms back in their homeland that their wives maintained during Viking season. When the men returned home from a raid， they resumed their normal routine of farming.

Vikings were a unified army

Due to the difficult geographic location， the Scandinavian people were very spread out to conserve limited farmland. In addition， the penetration of Christianity caused many great divisions among the people still worshipping the traditional Nordic pantheon， further emphasizing the divided nature of the people.

They were large and heavily muscled

Due to the short summer seasons， growing crops was difficult and resources were always scarce. As a result， many of the Scandinavian people were much smaller than commonly depicted due to limited food sources.

While the living conditions in Scandinavian regions were certainly harsh and made a hard people， many Vikings suffered from the scarcity of resources and the people set up their homes over great distances with no real unified leadership. During the Viking Age， the Scandinavian people were able to make a stronger push to the outside worlds and create a reputation for themselves beyond simple barbarism. While some Vikings were driven with the lust for riches， many sought more peaceful economic relationships with the surrounding nations.

維京人是个航海民族，兴起于8世纪晚期，消亡于11世纪早期，是公认的商人、探险家和勇士。远在哥伦布发现新大陆之前，他们就已踏上了美洲。他们也曾向东挺进，直抵俄国的边远地区。

由于维京人会为了财色而去袭击比他们先进的民族，他们常被看成是野蛮人，但他们的作战动机绝没那么简单，维京人的文化也远比人们所想的更为丰富多样。这些劫掠者也促成了当时欧洲社会的诸多变革，所涉领域从经济到军事不一而足。

维京时代

斯堪的纳维亚语中有个词叫vikingr，意为海盗。许多历史学家都把Viking（维京人）和vikingr联系在一起。然而，Viking这个词的本义却是海外探险，在斯堪的纳维亚语中是动词，指的是古时男子夏季的例行远航。许多人都认为维京人远征不外乎是袭击沿海的修道院和城市，但实际上，许多远航的真正目的是通商以及参加外国雇佣军。

盎格鲁·福特、理查德·D.奥拉姆和弗雷德里克·佩德森是《维京帝国》（剑桥大学出版社，2005）的三位作者。据他们所说，维京时代一般指公元800年至1050年代这一段时期，有史可查的最早的突袭行动就发生在公元800年之前那几年，而维京时代结束后没几年的1066年就发生了诺曼征服。在此期间，斯堪的纳维亚人的势力范围扩展到了北欧的每个角落，维京人还袭击了北欧之外许多国家的沿海地区。据说，走得最远的维京人曾到过巴格达，他们在那里做买卖，出售皮货、海象牙及海豹油脂等物。

维京舰船

维京舰船集中体现了维京人的文化。这些奇特的船只——尤其是长船——决定了以航海为业的古斯堪的纳维亚人的生活，也改变了欧洲历史的发展进程。

凭着磨炼了千余年的造船技艺，古斯堪的纳维亚人能造各种船——从小渔船、大肚货船到著名的长船，种类繁多。其中，长船是突袭时用的，速度奇快。但不管船只大小如何，它们大都外形狭窄，吃水不深（水位线与船底间的垂直距离），这样的特点使船极适宜在河海中航行。

到了7世纪，维京人发明了龙骨结构，造船技艺已达到了很高的水平。龙骨是船体结构中纵贯首尾的那根梁，位于船只主体的下方。根据“赛艇与划船世界”网站的说法，由于采用了这种结构，船只行驶得更快更稳了，这种构造还有防止过度横摇的作用。

维京人造船的第一步是在刚砍下的树上打楔子，要打到树干沿木纹裂开为止。那时人们可能要砍掉20棵大橡树才能造出一艘船。削成形的板条重叠搭接在一起，如扇子般叠合固定，接合处严丝合缝。历史重现学会Regia Anglorum网站称，在以重叠搭接法造船时，人们先从船体外壳造起，而后再把肋骨构架放进去。维京人会以铁铆钉加固船身，最后在船体外部覆一层由浸过沥青的动物毛、羊毛或苔藓混合而成的防水层。至此，一条长船就造好了，它不但速度飞快，而且极为灵活，没什么能赶上它。

水手们行船，除了要摇桨，还要把帆也升起来，那巨大的帆极有可能是羊毛做的。按格林威治皇家博物馆网站所述，长船没有舵，但在船尾右舷固定着一根舵桨。

到了9世纪中叶，有关可在欧洲获取财宝的传言传遍了古斯堪的纳维亚地区，于是维京人袭击的频次大大增加。古斯堪的纳维亚各地的村庄和部族都聚在一起建造战船，想通过劫掠来改善生活。842年，维京人无情地攻击了法国的海岸城市南特，他们有溯游而上的本事，所以接着又袭击了遥远的内陆城市，如巴黎、利摩日、奥尔良、图尔和尼姆。

由于维京人认为龙头能避邪，所以长船的船头通常都有龙头雕饰。后来，龙头和带有红色条纹的方形巨帆就成了维京人的标志。在后来的300年中，欧洲人一见这个标志就害怕。

对维京人的错误认识

现代人对维京人的许多认识得自以前的天主教的宣传。当时的天主教神父着力宣扬维京人非人道的一面，因为维京人洗劫了基督教的很多重要场所，古物珍宝损失无数。在维多利亚女王统治英国之前，维京人一直被刻画成狂暴野蛮的民族。到了19世纪和20世纪，人们改变了对维京人的看法，他们被美化成了戴着有角头盔的高贵的野蛮人，拥有值得自豪的文化，还具备让人胆寒的战斗力。

这些错误认识使人们对维京人怀有一些谬见。对照史料，下列较普遍的看法显然错误：

维京战士戴着有角的头盔

维京战士一般不戴头盔，就是要戴，也只戴由金属骨架和皮革拼接而成的头盔，头盔上偶尔附有面罩。带角的头盔是人们想象出来的，那是维多利亚时代维京文化复兴的产物。

维京人又脏又邋遢

考古学家时常挖到维京人所用的梳子、剃须刀、耳匙及其他梳洗用具，这证明他们很爱干净。

维京人把时间都用在劫掠和作战上

虽然维京人通过劫掠获得了大批财物，但许多人都没有舍弃家乡的农场，在远征时节，妻子们就守着自家的农场。当男人们劫掠归来时，他们仍要照常耕作。

维京军队是团结的队伍

由于地理位置不利，斯堪的纳维亚人为了耕种有限的农田而散居各地。此外，基督教的渗入使传统的北欧多神教的教众内部出现了严重的分裂，这更说明这不是个团结的民族。

维京人身形高大肌肉发达

由于夏天短，北欧地区庄稼难种，粮食总也不够吃。因为食物来源有限，很多斯堪的纳维亚人都比人们通常所描述的要瘦小得多。

斯堪的纳维亚地区的生存条件无疑是恶劣的，当地人也因此而形成了冷酷的性格，许多维京人都饱受资源短缺之苦，人们分居各地，彼此远离，没有真正的统一领导。在维京时代，斯堪的纳维亚人能够更有力地向外部世界推进，也不再单纯以残暴的一面示人，从而为自己树立了声望。有些维京人一心只想掠夺财富，但有许多维京人是在寻求与周边各国建立较为和睦的经济关系。

1 Norse古斯堪的纳维亚人的;（尤指）北欧海盗的。

2 draft吃水深度。  3 stern船尾;艉。  4 the grain（木头和织物等的）纹理。  5 clinker construction指类似北欧叠板船（clinker boat）的构造。建造北欧叠板船，先要将薄木板固定在龍骨和阀杆等支柱上，然后用金属铆钉、木钉或绳子将逐层重叠的木板固定在一起。