新时代中国海洋观及其对国际海洋治理的影响

胡德坤 晋玉

The maritime outlook is people’s rational perception of the status， role and value of the ocean in human life and social development， and people’s overall view of the relationship between the ocean and national development. The maritime outlook has great influence on the formulation of a country’s marine strategy and the construction of sea power. Entering the new era， the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China （CPC） with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core， taking into consideration both domestic and international imperatives and drawing on the historical experience of maritime development both at home and abroad， has come up with China’s maritime outlook in the new era. A grasp of the implications of the concept， an analysis of its theoretical and practical origins， and an exploration of its significance to international maritime governance are conducive to thoroughly understanding the Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era and the Xi Jinping Thought on Diplomacy， and better promoting China’s maritime power strategy and the building of a maritime community with a shared future.

Connotations of the New Maritime Outlook

The new maritime outlook is China’s guidelines in handling maritime affairs. It is consistent with the path of peaceful development pursued by China in its diplomacy， the building of a community with a shared future for mankind and the new type of international relations proposed by China， as it represents the progressive concepts of peace， cooperation， mutual benefits and win-win outcomes.

Attaching importance to oceans in national development

Seas and oceans have nurtured life， connected the world and promoted development. Since the strategic goal of building a maritime power was proposed at the 18th CPC National Congress， with a view to realizing the Chinese Dream of great national rejuvenation， General Secretary Xi Jinping has made the objective an important part of the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics， and delivered a series of important speeches and plans on the development of China’s marine undertakings under new circumstances.

On July 30， 2013， when presiding over the eighth group study session of the Political Bureau of the 18th CPC Central Committee， Xi pointed out the importance of seas and oceans to China’s development on all fronts. “In the 21st century， mankind has entered a period of massive exploitation and utilization of marine resources. Seas and oceans are playing an increasingly important role in a country’s economic development pattern and its opening-up practice， and have taken a more prominent position in safeguarding national sovereignty， security and development interests， as well as in advancing national ecological civilization construction. The strategic role of seas and oceans in global political， economic， military and technological competition is also on the rise.” In a bid to make new achievements in maritime power construction， he proposed further concern about as well as more understanding and better management of the ocean. In August of the same year， Xi once again stressed the importance of seas and oceans during his inspection of Dalian Shipbuilding Industry Offshore， “Marine undertakings are related to the survival and development of our nation and the rise and fall of our country.” In the white paper China’s Military Strategy in 2015， it was also stressed that seas and oceans bear on the enduring peace， lasting stability and sustainable development of China.

The major deployment of building China into a maritime power is of great and far-reaching significance to promoting sustained and sound economic development， safeguarding China’s sovereignty， security and development interests， and achieving the goal of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and then realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

Emphasizing land-sea coordination

Though China is a country with vast land and sea territories， traditionally more weight was placed on land than on the sea. Given that most threats to China’s national security since modern times have come from the seas， more attention has since been given to maritime power building. However， as modern China was poor and weak， and faced with domestic strife and foreign aggression， it failed to defend its marine sovereignty. For a time， there was a dispute between land defense and coastal defense.

Xi Jinping has explicitly stressed the significance of China’s maritime presence soon after he took power. “China is not only a major land power but also a major marine power with extensive maritime strategic interests.” “We should keep in mind the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics， take into account both domestic and international imperatives， and adhere to coordinated development on land and at sea.” The important idea of land-sea coordination was reiterated in the report at the 19th CPC National Congress and in China’s Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and Long-Range Objectives Through the Year 2035. The concept has fundamentally changed the traditional view that land outweighs sea， and strengthened the awareness of modern marine economic development featuring multi-level， extensive and comprehensive utilization of resources both on land and at sea. It has not only enhanced China’s hard power in marine economy， military， science and technology， but also improved its soft power in marine awareness and civilization.

Balancing between rights protection and stability maintenance

Striking a balance between protecting maritime rights and interests and maintaining maritime stability is an important part of the new maritime outlook. In handling maritime disputes with neighboring countries， General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out the need to settle disputes through peaceful means and negotiation so as to maintain peace and stability. While insisting on China’s sovereignty claims on the disputed islands and reefs， it is necessary to set aside disputes and carry out joint development with other parties to promote mutually beneficial and friendly cooperation and expand common interests.

At the same time， in the face of some countries that infringe on China’s maritime rights and external forces that use maritime issues to challenge China’s sovereignty， security and development interests， Xi has also stressed that while China， as a peace-loving country， will adhere to the path of peaceful development， in no way will it abandon its legitimate rights and interests， nor will it give up its core national interests. We should maintain stability while advocating our rights and interests， comprehensively safeguard our sovereignty， security and development interests， and enhance our overall national strength to better maintain maritime rights and interests. We should be well prepared to cope with all complexities， and improve our capacity to resolutely safeguard maritime rights and interests.

As the backbone for safeguarding China’s maritime rights and interests， the navy’s role in maintaining maritime peace， tranquility and good order has been highly valued by Xi， who noted that China firmly pursues a national defense policy that is defensive in nature and advocates the new vision of common， comprehensive， cooperative and sustainable security. Regarding the goal of China’s naval force development， the above-mentioned white paper China’s Military Strategy has called for building a modern maritime military force commensurate with national security and development interests and with the capability to defend national sovereignty and maritime rights and interests. In line with the strategic requirements of offshore defense and open seas protection， the Chinese Navy will gradually shift its focus from solely offshore defense to a combination of both offshore and open seas presence. As for its international outreach， the Chinese military， holding high the banner of win-win cooperation， are committed to creating a maritime security landscape featuring equality， mutual trust， fairness， justice， joint contribution and shared benefits. By strengthening maritime dialogues and exchanges and deepening practical cooperation， navies of different countries should pursue a mutually beneficial approach to maritime security， and jointly address common threats and challenges at sea to safeguard maritime peace and tranquility.

Harmony between mankind and the sea

General Secretary Xi Jinping has attached great importance to marine ecological protection. To achieve harmony between mankind and the sea， he has pointed out the necessity to promote the transformation towards sustainable marine development. All-out efforts should be made to curb the trend of deteriorating marine ecological environment， and resolute measures should be taken to achieve remarkable improvement in marine ecological environment and ensure safe seafood， blue seas and skies， and clean beaches for the public. Furthermore， he indicated that the authorities should incorporate marine ecological progress into the overall plan of marine development， attach equal importance to exploitation and protection， pay equal attention to pollution prevention and remediation， utilize marine resources in a scientific and rational way， and maintain the natural reproduction capacity of the oceans.

In recent years， China has been committed to the construction of marine ecological civilization， intensifying marine pollution prevention and treatment， protecting marine biodiversity and exploiting marine resources in an orderly manner， to create a better environment for future generations. It is not only a priority of China’s domestic development agenda， but also the country’s appeal to the international community. In his speech at the China-Greece Marine Cooperation Forum， Premier Li Keqiang proposed working together for an ocean of harmony. “While working on the development of the ocean， countries need to treat marine ecology kindly and protect marine environment so that the ocean will remain a place people can depend on and develop” In China’s Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan issued in March 2021， land-sea coordination and a win-win and harmonious relationship between mankind and the sea are again stressed. While developing the marine economy， it is also necessary to simultaneously advance marine ecological protection and safeguard maritime rights and interests. The concept of harmony between mankind and the sea transcends the traditional view of the ocean and enables the long-neglected marine ecological protection issues to rise to the top of national development agenda.

Actively participating in international maritime cooperation

The new maritime outlook emphasizes the necessity of international maritime cooperation and China’s willingness to carry out such cooperation. Xi has called for solid progress in building a maritime power through peace， development and mutually beneficial cooperation. Premier Li Keqiang has also indicated that China stands ready to work with other countries to build an ocean of peace， cooperation and harmony. To build an ocean of peace， China will step up communication and cooperation with relevant countries and improve bilateral and multilateral mechanisms to jointly safeguard navigation freedom and security of shipping lanes， fight piracy and terrorism on the sea and cope with oceanic disasters in a bid to foster peace and tranquility in the ocean. To build an ocean of cooperation， China will work with all coastal countries to forge partnerships for marine cooperation， build shipping lanes， develop marine economy， utilize marine resources， and explore the unknown about the ocean. To build an ocean of harmony， countries， while working on the development of the ocean， need to treat the marine ecology kindly and protect the marine environment so that the ocean will remain a place people can depend on and develop. Maritime international cooperation has also been mentioned for multiple times in the 14th Five-Year Plan. China will deepen maritime cooperation with neighboring countries based on coastal economic belts， actively develop blue partnerships， enhance collaboration with other coastal countries in marine environmental monitoring and protection， scientific research and maritime search and rescue， and engage in practical cooperation in the Arctic to build the Ice Silk Road.

Origins of the New Maritime Outlook

The new maritime outlook is the creation by Chinese leaders who have fully absorbed the experience and lessons of ocean development at home and abroad， accurately grasped the general trend of international ocean affairs， and carried forward the thinking on New China’s maritime construction.

Drawing lessons from Chinese and foreign historical experience

A review of the history of world economic development shows that an obvious trajectory of the world economy to prosperity is to move from the inland towards the ocean， and from the ocean towards the world. This highly summarizes the historical experience in the world ocean development.

Looking at the world history， during the 1，000 more years from the 8th century BC to the 6th century AD， in the Mediterranean region emerged a number of powers taking advantage of the ocean to gain hegemony， such as ancient Greece and ancient Rome， which initially reflected the positive role of the ocean in the prosperity of a country. In the modern times， great powers in the world basically embarked on the road of dominating the oceans， based on which they achieved business boom and industrial strength， and became economic giants. From the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century， Portugal， Spain and the Netherlands， relying on their maritime supremacy， successively rose to the world’s commercial empires. Subsequent history shows us that the United Kingdom， France， the United States and Japan have also built up strong maritime fleets to penetrate the oceans and gradually became regional or even global powers， hence taking the lead in modernization.

While the expansion of modern Western powers into the Americas， Africa， Asia， Oceania and other backward regions by sea broke the isolation of mankind， connected the world and promoted exchanges and development around the world， their ocean-oriented development gave their first priority to the navy， by virtue of which they conquered backward areas by force， massacred aborigines， forced African blacks to be slaves in America， and exchanged cheap commodities for precious local resources so as to develop their own countries. In this regard， the history of conquest and deprivation by the capitalist maritime powers is full of blood and crime. The wars waged by the Western powers for colonies and maritime hegemony also caused great damage to world peace and stability.

The nature of China’s socialist system determines that we should abandon hegemonism and power politics while drawing on experience from Western maritime development. As Xi Jinping once pointed out， China will never go down the outdated path of colonization and plundering those great powers used to practice in history， which runs counter to the general trend of world peace and development， still less serves the fundamental interests of the Chinese nation. We are committed to the development path that enriches and strengthens China by the sea and with the sea， one that features harmony between man and the sea and win-win cooperation， with a view to building China into a maritime power through peace， development and win-win cooperation.

The Chinese nation has long known how to make use of the sea， that is， to utilize the sea for fishing， salt-making， and as a convenient means for transport. During the Spring and Autumn Period （770-476 BC）， the State of Qi was rich as it attached great importance to the development of navigation technology and trade activities and put mountains and seas under state administration. The Han Dynasty not only opened a road to the Western Regions and the Land Silk Road， but also invested a lot of manpower and material resources to open up the Maritime Silk Road， and sent trade fleets to the east coast of the Indian Ocean through Southeast Asia for many times. The sea route opened up by the Tang Dynasty reached as far as the Persian Gulf， the Red Sea and even the coast of East Africa， passing through more than 30 countries and regions. The use of bulkhead waterproofing technology and the compass in sailing ships in the Song Dynasty enhanced the trade capacity of ocean shipping rapidly. Especially during the period of Emperor Gaozong’s retreat to the south， the Southern Song Dynasty， which was in desperate financial straits， established opening up the ocean as a state policy， and therefore the revenue from the business ships became an important financial source of the dynasty. The policy of developing the ocean was maintained during the Yuan Dynasty， when the development of marine economy reached its peak. The proactive maritime policy implemented by the imperial court in the early Ming Dynasty facilitated Zheng He’s seven voyages to the Western Seas， leaving a brilliant page in the maritime history of China and the world.

Although marine economy had witnessed significant growth in the Tang， Song and Yuan Dynasties， the dominance of the agricultural civilization fundamentally hindered its further development， and tribute trade also restricted the ruling class’s perception of its importance. The concept of valuing agriculture over commerce and valuing land over the sea by past Chinese ruling classes weakened the ability and discouraged the momentum of the Chinese people to face up to and move towards the sea. In feudal times of China， the marine economy mainly prospered among folks and in local areas and did not become the driving force of social and economic development. While Western colonists began devoting their major efforts to maritime development with the advent of the Age of Sail， the Ming and Qing authorities gradually retreated from the sea. Considering the challenging domestic situation and complex external environment， the Ming and Qing governments had both implemented sea ban， which prohibited any ship from going into the sea. These policies directly blocked China’s maritime trade and undermined people’s livelihood， with skilled persons deploring the waste of their sailing techniques and precious ships left unused to decay.

The more serious consequence of China’s retreat from the sea in modern times was that the country missed its development opportunities， and became the target of bullying by Western powers because of its weak coastal defense and dilapidated military equipment. From 1840 to 1919， Japan， Britain， France， the United States， Russia， Germany and other countries invaded China from the sea for more than 470 times， including 84 large-scale invasions， and dispatched their ships for a total of 1，860 times. With their notorious gunboat diplomacy， the Western powers forced the Qing government to sign a series of unequal treaties， which turned China into a semi-colonial country controlled by the great powers.

It is only by considering the long course of human history that we can gain a perspective on the essence of historical movements and the direction of contemporary developments. The maritime outlook in the new era is thus the product of a profound summary of Chinese and foreign historical experience and lessons.

Grasping the trend of international maritime politics

Since entering the new century， the development of international maritime politics has taken on new trends， which have a direct impact on the formation of China’s maritime outlook.

First， international maritime competition has been largely conducted in a non-violent manner. In the 21st century， although major powers still take seriously the construction of sea power and the maritime arms race is still fierce， the effective nuclear deterrence among major powers has restrained the outbreak of hot wars， and it is increasingly difficult to change the status quo by military force. With the development of international institutions and economic globalization， the main role of maritime military force is now deterrence rather than actual combat. Deterrence， sea control， power projection and maritime security will become the main functions of future maritime force. The struggles around national maritime rights and interests have increasingly shown some new features： the main aims of contention for and control of the seas have changed from mainly military advantages in the past into economic interests， from mainly for sea areas and passages of strategic importance into for sovereignty of islands and reefs， jurisdiction over sea areas and maritime resources. The contention for the seas between superpowers and maritime powers has also changed into extensive participation by coastal states， especially developing countries in their struggle for national maritime rights and interests. Although these struggles may still lead to conflicts or even wars， they can be settled peacefully through negotiations and consultations. International maritime political practices in recent years have shown that although some countries have faced off over maritime rights and territorial disputes， there have been few incidents of firing or casualties. This demonstrates the feasibility of peacefully resolving or managing maritime conflicts and clashes.

Second， cooperation in the exploitation and utilization of marine resources has become an international trend. The oceans and seas are essential for national and global economic well-being. The global ocean economic activity is estimated to be US$3-6 trillion， contributing to the world economy in many important ways. 90 percent of global trade moves by marine transport. Submarine cables carry 95 percent of all global telecommunications. Fisheries and aquaculture supply 4.3 billion people with more than 15 percent of annual consumption of animal protein. Over 30 percent of global oil and gas produced is extracted offshore. Coastal tourism is the largest market segment in the world economy， comprising 5 percent of the global gross domestic product （GDP） and 6 to 7 percent of global employment.

In the process of developing and utilizing the ocean， problems such as large gaps in the level of development and unbalanced capabilities between countries have become apparent， which require cooperation in capital， technology， markets， and talents to achieve complementary advantages. Concurrent with the exploitation and utilization of marine resources are the mounting non-traditional maritime security threats. In the age of globalization， threats such as marine natural disasters， piracy and organized crime at sea are complex and diverse. No country can deal with them alone， so international cooperation is the prevailing trend of our times.

Third， protecting the marine ecological environment has become the consensus of the international community. The oceans are an essential part of human ecological environment and the home for humanity. They serve as the Earth’s respiratory system， storing and absorbing 30 percent of the world’s carbon dioxide， while marine phytoplankton generates 50 percent of the oxygen needed for survival. The oceans regulate the climate and temperature， making the planet hospitable to diverse forms of life. The oceans and seas are essential for social well-being. Over 40 percent， or 3.1 billion， of the world’s population lives within 100 kilometers of the ocean or sea in about 150 coastal and island nations. Regardless of whether a country is landlocked or coastal， all nations are directly connected to the oceans and seas through rivers， lakes and streams. Increasing adverse impacts from climate change， including ocean acidification， overfishing and marine pollution， are endangering parts of the world’s seas. As the global oceans and seas are constantly flowing， the deterioration of ecological environment in one sea area will spread to others.

The international community has been fully aware of the deterioration of marine environment and has taken active measures to prevent and control it. Oceans and seas were centrally emphasized in the Rio+20 outcome document， The Future We Want. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development， adopted at the United Nations Summit on Sustainable Development， set out 17 Sustainable Development Goals （SDGs）， among which Goal 14 focuses on “conserve and sustainably use the oceans， seas and marine resources for sustainable development.” It contains seven targets， which includes preventing and significantly reducing marine pollution， minimizing and addressing the impacts of ocean acidification， effectively regulating harvesting and ending overfishing， and conserving coastal and marine areas， as well as three provisions on means of implementation. These targets and means of implementation reinforce and give renewed focus and urgency to existing international prescriptions on oceans and seas emanating from the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development， the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development， the 2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development （Rio+20）， and the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea， which came into force in 1994. In June 2017， the first UN Ocean Conference was held in New York. In his opening remarks to the conference， UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres， while stressing that SDG14 must become a roadmap for global ocean governance， made five specific proposals on the conservation and sustainable use of marine resources： ending the artificial dichotomy between economic demands and the health of our seas， promoting strong political leadership and new partnerships， translating political will into funding commitments， deepening our knowledge base to provide reliable support for policy making， and sharing best practices and experiences about marine environmental governance.

Following the trend of international maritime affairs has been a recurring key point in Xi Jinping’s remarks and guidance on China’s ocean development and governance. By accurately capturing the developments of international maritime politics and combining them with the overall interests for the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the new era， the new maritime outlook has taken on distinct contemporary relevance.

Inheriting New China’s thoughts on marine development

Since the founding of New China， great importance has been attached by the CPC and the state to work relating to maritime affairs and the development of marine undertakings. New China’s marine cause evolved from ensuring survival to pursuing development， and from standing upright to becoming prosperous. In the Mao Zedong period， sea defense was the top priority. In the Deng Xiaoping period， efforts were concentrated on the development of marine economy. The Jiang Zemin period witnessed the formulation of a comprehensive marine development plan， while the Hu Jintao period saw a vigorous implementation of ocean development strategy.

In the early days after New China was founded， marine undertakings had to start from scratch and maritime security could not be guaranteed. To safeguard national security and development interests， China adopted three major measures to facilitate its maritime development. The first was to build a maritime force. In December 1949， the CPC Central Military Commission issued an order to formally establish the People’s Liberation Army Navy （PLAN）. In the 1950s， three major fleets were developed in the PLAN， namely the North Sea Fleet， the East Sea Fleet and the South Sea Fleet. On multiple occasions， Mao Zedong highlighted the importance of building a strong navy. In his inscription for the inaugural issue of the People’s Navy， he wrote， “We must build a navy that can strengthen our coastal defense and effectively fend off possible imperialist aggression.” The argument was reiterated when he boarded the naval warship Changjiang in February 1953， “In the past， imperialists invaded China mostly from the sea. Given that the Pacific Ocean is still far from peaceful and we have such a long coastline， building a strong navy is all the more necessary.” The second was to establish maritime administration agencies. Soon after New China was founded， a number of agencies were set up to manage marine fisheries， sea ports and customs. In February 1964， the State Oceanic Administration （SOA） was established by the State Council. First administered by the Navy and later becoming an institution directly under the State Council， the SOA’s establishment strengthened China’s ocean management. The third was to develop marine industries. The central government vigorously supported marine fisheries， sea salt and maritime shipping as the three pillars of the marine economy. At the same time， a series of measures were taken to promote port management， shipbuilding and offshore oil and gas industries.

Marine development received further attention after China launched the reform and opening-up. In August 1979， Deng Xiaoping pointed out， “At present， countries around the world are scrambling to shift the focus of science and technology， economic development and deterrence strategies to the oceans. We can never rest on our oars. To become strong and powerful， China must open up to the world and sail to the ocean.” On the economic front， Deng put forward the strategy of opening up coastal areas， developing offshore resources and exploiting far open seas， in a bid to develop national economy by utilizing the ocean. To achieve the goal， he approved the important deployment of surveying the Chinese seas， marching into the three oceans of the world， and landing on Antarctica. In the field of maritime security， Deng put forward the strategic thought of offshore waters defense， pointing out that the coastal defense force must be expanded， strengthened and empowered. In his opinion， China’s maritime force need not be large but must be modern and of high quality. With regard to maritime territorial disputes， Deng Xiaoping creatively put forward the idea of shelving disputes and pursuing joint development while insisting on China’s legitimate sovereignty claims.

The first National Ocean Work Conference in January 1991 set the direction and goals of China’s maritime development in the 1990s， which was clarified in the document China’s Ocean Policy and Work Program in the 1990s. In 1992， the report of the 14th CPC National Congress explicitly called for safeguarding China’s maritime rights and interests. The Outline of the 9th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and Long-Range Objectives Through the Year 2010， adopted by the National People’s Congress in March 1996， clearly stated the requirements of strengthening marine resource surveys， developing marine industries and protecting the marine environment. In the same year， the SOA released China’s Ocean Agenda in the 21st Century. With strategic plans and specific arrangements for the sustainable development of China’s oceans and seas in the next century， the document became a policy guide for China’s march into the ocean.

Entering the 21st century， after the 16th CPC National Congress put forward the strategy of implementing marine development in 2002， the Outline of National Plan for Marine Economic Development was issued by the State Council in May 2003， which further clarified the strategic goal of building China into a maritime power. In the Outline of the 11th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development， approved by the National People’s Congress in 2006， it was proposed in the first section of Chapter 26 that China should strengthen maritime consciousness， maintain maritime rights and interests， protect the marine ecology， develop marine resources， implement comprehensive marine management， and promote the development of marine economy.

With a view to building a harmonious ocean， Hu Jintao put forward the goal of vigorously developing the marine economy. Considering the building of a harmonious ocean as an important part of building a harmonious world of enduring peace and common prosperity， Hu stressed that maritime disputes with neighboring countries should be settled through peaceful means. In terms of naval construction， Hu advocated “building a powerful Chinese Navy that meets the requirements of our military’s historic mission in the new century and at the new stage.” Marine industrial development was again stressed at the 17th CPC National Congress in 2007. To achieve the goal of building China into a maritime power， in February 2008， the Outline of National Plan for Marine Development was approved by the State Council. As a clear roadmap for China’s marine development in the next 5 to 15 years， this document specifically involves the marine economy， integrated marine management and marine public services. At the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012， Hu stated， “We should enhance our capacity for exploiting marine resources， strengthen the marine economy， develop the marine economy， protect the marine ecological environment， resolutely safeguard China’s maritime rights and interests， and build China into a maritime power.”

Standing on the shoulder of New China’s thoughts and practice on ocean development over the years， China’s maritime outlook in the new era is not only a summary， but also a transcendence of past achievements in light of the evolving domestic and international situation.

The New Maritime Outlook and International Ocean Governance

Under the guidance of the new maritime outlook， China， playing its role as a responsible maritime power， actively participates in global ocean governance， promotes the construction of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road， and supports marine capacity building in developing countries. China has made important contributions to steering the international marine order towards greater fairness， peace， inclusiveness and win-win outcomes.

Pointing the way forward for international ocean governance

Holding high the banner of peace， cooperation and harmony between man and sea， the new maritime outlook reflects the universal aspiration of the international community to build an open， inclusive， clean and beautiful world that enjoys lasting peace， universal security and common prosperity， which explains its strong vitality and appeal.

Among others， the concept of a maritime community with a shared future embodies the new maritime outlook. Upon the PLAN’s 70th anniversary in 2019， General Secretary Xi Jinping first proposed the concept of a maritime community with a shared future. “The blue planet we live on is not divided into islands by oceans， but a community of shared future linked by oceans， where people of all countries share weal and woe.” The concept of a maritime community with a shared future “calls for all countries to take a mutually beneficial road to maritime security， jointly respond to common maritime threats， risks and challenges， and work together to safeguard global maritime peace， stability， development and prosperity.” Rooted in traditional Chinese culture and values， this concept is a breakthrough of the Western-dominated international ocean theory. It goes beyond the simple and narrow maritime rights and interests of a country or a nation， and reflects the deep concern for global ocean governance and even global governance. It is the Chinese wisdom and solution to safeguard world ocean peace， promote world ocean development and participate in international ocean governance.

Both the new maritime outlook and the concept of a maritime community with a shared future keep pace with the times and serve the long-term interests of the international community， and should thus be qualified as important guidelines for international ocean governance.

Actively participating and leading international ocean governance

Under the guidance of the new maritime outlook， China is actively participating in marine environmental protection， and has shown great initiative through the release of its national plan on implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development， combining the implementation of SDG14 with China’s own marine development. At the international level， China has conducted exchanges and cooperation with nearly 50 countries in marine environmental protection， disaster prevention and mitigation， climate change， blue carbon， ocean acidification and marine garbage treatment. China has signed more than 30 bilateral cooperation agreements and hosted the offices and platforms of eight international organizations in relevant fields.

At the same time， China attaches high importance to participating in the rules-making of international maritime governance. Xi Jinping pointed out that “China should step up its participation in the establishment of rules in emerging areas such as the cyberspace， the polar regions， the deep sea and the outer space.” In his speech at the UN Office at Geneva， he declared， “Guided by the principle of peace， sovereignty， inclusiveness and shared governance， we should turn the deep sea， the polar regions， the outer space and the Internet into new frontiers for cooperation rather than a wrestling ground for competition.” In the white paper China’s Arctic Policy released by the State Council Information Office in January 2018， it is stated that in accordance with the basic principles of “respect， cooperation， win-win result and sustainability，” China is ready to cooperate with all relevant parties to address the challenges brought by the changes in the region， jointly understand， protect， develop and participate in the governance of the Arctic. It is also explicitly stipulated in the Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan that “We will deeply participate in the formulation and implementation of international ocean governance mechanisms and related rules， promote the construction of a fair and reasonable international maritime order， and promote the construction of a maritime community with a shared future.” So far， China has taken an active part in international negotiations on maritime issues， such as the international agreement on the sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction， the regular process for global reporting and assessment of the state of the marine environment， the Convention on Biological Diversity， and consultations under the International Seabed Authority and other mechanisms.

Safeguarding a peaceful maritime order

Guided by the principle of shelving disputes for joint development， China and Japan reached principled consensus on the East China Sea， and signed a memorandum of understanding on establishing a maritime and air liaison mechanism. In the South China Sea， China has held consultations with Vietnam， Brunei， Malaysia and the Philippines on joint maritime development， and actively discussed maritime confidence-building measures and crisis management mechanisms with its neighbors to prevent the escalation of maritime disputes or major conflicts. China and ASEAN countries are also actively promoting consultations on a code of conduct in the South China Sea. Besides， China opposes the United States’ infringement on the maritime rights and interests of developing countries under the pretext of freedom of navigation， and rejects its provocative actions such as close-in reconnaissance at sea. The Chinese naval escort taskforce set sail to the Indian Ocean and carried out escort missions in the Gulf of Aden， effectively cracking down on the Somali pirates and safeguarding the security of shipping lanes in the Indian Ocean. With the rapid development of the Chinese Navy， its capability of carrying out offshore defense and open seas protection has been enhanced， which effectively safeguards international maritime peace.

Supporting developing countries’ participation in international ocean governance

It is China’s established maritime policy to actively conduct maritime cooperation with other countries in the world. Entering the new era， since the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road was proposed， China has further stepped up maritime cooperation with other countries. As Xi Jinping pointed out， “China proposed the initiative of jointly building the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road to promote sea connectivity and practical cooperation in all areas， enhance the development of the blue economy， foster the integration of maritime cultures， and jointly improve the well-being of the oceans.” At the Boao Forum for Asia in 2015， Xi proposed that “We may increase maritime connectivity， speed up institution building for marine cooperation in Asia， and step up cooperation in marine economy， environmental protection， disaster management and fishery. This way， we could turn the seas of Asia into seas of peace， friendship and cooperation for Asian countries.” In the Vison for Maritime Cooperation under the Belt and Road Initiative released in June 2017 by the National Development and Reform Commission and the SOA， it is pointed out that “with the theme of sharing a blue space and developing the blue economy， China encourages countries along the Road to align their strategies， further all-around and pragmatic cooperation， and to jointly build unobstructed， safe and efficient maritime transport channels. Together we will build platforms for maritime cooperation and develop the Blue Partnership”

Under the guidance of the new maritime outlook， China has actively carried out international maritime cooperation. In Asia， China has signed bilateral maritime cooperation documents with Indonesia， Thailand， Malaysia， Vietnam， Sri Lanka， the Maldives， Cambodia， India and South Korea， and set up a series of bilateral and multilateral cooperation platforms including the East Asia Marine Cooperation Platform， the China-ASEAN Marine Cooperation Center， and the China-ASEAN Countries Forum on Marine Science and Technologies. Under the Framework Plan for International Cooperation in the South China Sea and its Adjacent Oceans （2011-2015）， the SOA launched more than 70 marine science and technology cooperation projects with 19 countries， and promoted exchanges and cooperation in climate change， marine environmental protection and other areas with countries along the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. More recently， China has actively implemented the Framework Plan for 2016-2020. In Africa and small island countries， China has signed bilateral maritime cooperation agreements with South Africa， Zanzibar and Vanuatu， and assisted Jamaica in building its first joint marine environmental monitoring station.

At the same time， China has actively provided maritime public goods and services for other countries within its capacity. In recent years， the SOA has built the ocean observation network and support service system covering the Belt and Road region. In June 2017， the Western Pacific Marine Data and Information Sharing Service System， developed by the National Marine Data and Information Service， was released to the world， effectively enhancing the capability of marine data sharing services in the Western Pacific region. China has also initiated the Marine Scholarship of China program and conducted various kinds of training， which has trained thousands of marine professionals for developing countries every year. China’s above efforts have not only facilitated relevant countries to share the benefits of marine development， but have also enhanced the capabilities of developing countries in areas such as marine scientific research and maritime weather forecasting. Moreover， these efforts have amplified the voices of developing countries in the governance of new frontiers such as the deep sea and the polar regions， in which way China has made a contribution to building a fairer， more equitable and balanced international order.

Conclusion

China’s maritime outlook in the new era， put forward by its leaders， is a product of theoretical and practical innovation and a continuation and development of China’s thoughts on maritime construction in New China. Under the guidance of Marxism， it comprehensively summarizes historical laws， deeply grasps the development trend of international maritime politics， and combines the reality and history. Despite its Chinese characteristics， the values presented by the new maritime outlook represent the common value of mankind and therefore it belongs to all mankind. At the critical moment when the world is undergoing profound changes unseen in a century， the new maritime outlook is not only a powerful theoretical equipment for China to realize its maritime power strategy， but also a Chinese solution and realistic path to improve global ocean governance and promote a fairer and more reasonable global maritime order. China’s practice under the guidance of the new maritime outlook has set a good example for building a maritime community with a shared future and will leave a remarkable footprint in international ocean governance.