美国种族主义简史

萨马纳·西迪基

Racism is the belief that ones race， skin color， or more generally， ones group， be it of religious， national or ethnic identity， is superior to others in humanity. It has been part of the American landscape primarily since the European colonization of North America beginning in the 17th century. Various groups have bore the brunt of it， manifested in discriminatory laws， social practices， and criminal behavior directed toward a target group. The following are a list of just a few and their experiences.

Racism against Native Americans： with the Europeans arrival on North Americas shores and their systematic plan to subdue and conquer its land， came racism and bigotry against Native Americans. Europeans believed the original inhabitants of America were heathens and savages who needed to be civilized through Christianity and European culture. This led to genocide， mass murder， stolen land， attempts to wipe out Native American traditions， as well as forced assimilation through institutions like residential schools and the establishment of “Indian reservations”. As well， media portrayal of this continents first inhabitants as bloodthirsty savages helped justify European abuses against Native Americans. The long-term effects， among others， of this treatment include the fact that today， Native Americans have the highest suicide rate of any group in the United States， according to the National Institute of Mental Health.

Racism against African-Americans： many of the Africans brought to America starting in the 17th century arrived as slaves， kidnapped from their homelands in various parts of Africa. A number of them were known to be royalty and literate. African men， women， and children were stripped of their names and identities， forced to “Christianize”， whipped， beaten， tortured， and in many cases， lynched or hanged at the whims of their white masters， for whom slavery was key to maintaining their vast properties and land. Families were separated through the process of buying and selling slaves. While not all Africans in America were slaves， a large number were， particularly in the southern states. For those Africans in America who were free， discriminatory laws that barred them from owning property and voting， for example， as well as the belief in the intrinsic inferiority of dark-skinned peoples by the dominant white majority， held them back from full equality in the United States.

Although slavery was ultimately outlawed and laws prohibiting discrimination against African-Americans passed， racism against this community remains and is manifested in more subtle ways today. For example， the Washington， DC， Fair Employment Practices Commission has found that blacks face discrimination in one out of every five job interviews. The American Sociological Association notes that， “today employers use different phases of the hiring process to discriminate against minorities （e.g.， recruiting from primarily white schools instead of through job training programs） and offer higher status jobs and pay to white employees. Reports of job discrimination against African Americans are correlated with darker complexion， higher education， immigrant status， and young age.”

Jewish-Americans： Although Jews first arrived in America over 300 years ago and enjoyed a certain level of religious freedom， anti-Semitism was acceptable and common socially， as well as legally in some cases. For example， some states in the late 18th century barred those who were not Christian from voting or holding public office. However， these barriers were later removed， especially with the enactment of the Bill of Rights.

As well， during the Holocaust in Europe during the 1940s， a ship of over 900 primarily German Jewish refugees was denied permission to land on U.S. soil， based on the exclusionary Immigration Act of 1924. Only one-third of the passengers， who were forced to return to Europe， survived the genocide of Jews on the continent at the time.

The Ku Klux Kan， one of the most virulent and violent hate groups in America， did not just direct their rage at African-Americans. Jews were also a target.

As well， discrimination against Jews was practiced in some cases in the workforce， and they were not permitted entry into a number of resort areas and social clubs. Colleges also practiced discrimination by limiting their enrolment. In a number of cases， Jews were forbidden from buying certain types of property.

Islamophobia is the term that has been coined to describe the current hostility toward Islam and Muslims in the United States， manifested in prejudice， harassment and discrimination. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life found last year that positive opinions of Islam among Americans have declined since 2005. Islamophobia intensified after the 9/11 terror attacks， as well as the subsequent wars on Afghanistan and Iraq. Muslims in the United States over the last decade have been subject to 700，000 interviews by the FBI， wiretapping， phone surveillance， and racial profiling1. Added to this is the rhetoric of hate and misinformation fueled by so-called terrorism experts， right-wing authors， television and radio talk show hosts and personalities， as well as countless blogs and websites that demonize Islam and Muslims and automatically link them to terrorism.

種族主义是指这样一种观念：认为一个人的种族、肤色或更普遍地说，其族群，无论从宗教、国籍还是民族身份来看，都比其他种族高贵。自17世纪欧洲对北美洲进行殖民统治以来，种族主义就成为美国的主要国情。多个族裔都深受其害，具体表现为歧视性法律、社会习俗以及针对某一目标群体的犯罪行为。下面将列出部分族裔及他们所遭受的种族主义经历。

针对美洲原住民的种族主义：随着欧洲人抵达北美海岸，以及他们征服北美大陆系列计划的实施，针对美洲原住民的种族主义和偏见也随之而来。欧洲人认为，美洲原住民都是异教徒和野蛮人，必须受到基督教和欧洲文化的教化。这导致了一系列行径：种族灭绝、大屠杀、土地侵占、企图摧毁原住民文化传统，以及通过寄宿学校之类的机构和建立“印第安人保留地”来强迫同化原住民。同时，媒体将这片大陆的首批居民描述为嗜血的野蛮人，进一步证明欧洲人对美洲原住民进行迫害的合理性。美国国家心理健康研究所的数据显示，这种迫害带来的长期影响包括：如今，美国原住民的自杀率是美国所有群体中最高的。

针对非裔美国人的种族主义：17世纪以来，许多非洲人在自己的家乡被绑架，以奴隶身份被带到美国，他们来自非洲各地，其中许多人被认为是皇室成员并且受过教育。非洲人，无论男人女人还是儿童，都被剥夺了姓名和身份，被迫接受“基督教化”，被鞭挞、殴打和折磨，在许多情况下，被白人奴隶主随意处以私刑或绞死。对白人奴隶主而言，奴隶制对于维持他们大片的庄园和土地至关重要。在买卖奴隶的过程中，许多家庭被迫分离。尽管并非所有在美国的非洲人都曾是奴隶，但他们当中很多人都曾是，尤其是在南部各州。对于那些自由的在美国的非洲人而言，歧视性法律禁止他们拥有财产和投票权，同时，占主导地位且数量占多数的白人相信，肤色偏深的民族生来就低人一等，这些使他们无法在美国享有完全平等的权利。

尽管美国最终废除了奴隶制，通过了禁止歧视非裔美国人的法律，但针对这个群体的种族主义仍然存在，并且在今天以更微妙的方式呈现出来。例如，华盛顿特区公平就业实施委员会发现，黑人在每五次工作面试中就有一次受到歧视。美国社会学协会指出：“如今，雇主在招聘的不同阶段歧视少数群体（例如，从白人为主的学校招募，而不是通过职业培训计划），向白人雇员提供更高地位的工作和更高的薪酬。据称，肤色较深、受教育程度较高、拥有移民身份及年龄较小的非裔美国人更易受到就业歧视。”

犹太裔美国人：尽管犹太人早在300多年前就来到美国，并且享有一定程度的宗教自由，但反犹太主义却被社会接受且普遍存在，在某些情况下也是合法的。例如，18世纪后期，有些州禁止非基督教教徒参加选举或担任公职。但是，这些禁令后来都被解除了，尤其是在《人权法案》颁布之后。

此外，20世纪40年代欧洲大屠杀期间，一艘载有900多名難民（主要是德裔犹太人）的船只，按照1924年排斥性的《移民法》规定，被拒绝登陆美国本土。最后，乘客被迫返回欧洲，只有三分之一的乘客在当时欧洲大陆的犹太人种族灭绝中幸存下来。

三K党，美国最残暴的仇恨团体之一，不仅将怒火发泄到非裔美国人身上，也把犹太人当作打击目标。

在某些情况下，劳动力市场中也存在对犹太人的歧视，许多度假区和社交俱乐部不允许犹太人进入。大学也通过对犹太人限制招生来实行歧视。许多情况下，犹太人被禁止购买某些类型的资产。

“伊斯兰教恐惧症”这一新造词用来形容目前美国方面对伊斯兰教和穆斯林的敌意，表现为偏见、骚扰和歧视。皮尤宗教与公共生活论坛去年发现，2005年以来，美国人对伊斯兰教的正面看法有所下降。9·11恐怖袭击及随后美国分别对阿富汗和伊拉克发动战争之后，伊斯兰教恐惧症加剧。过去10年，美国的穆斯林受到联邦调查局70万次约谈，还遭受窃听、电话监视和种族形象定性。此外，所谓的恐怖主义专家、右翼作家、电视和广播脱口秀主持人和名人都煽动仇恨情绪，散布不实言论，无数博客和网站也将伊斯兰教和穆斯林妖魔化，并自动将他们和恐怖主义联系起来。

[译者单位：中国石油大学（北京）]