景观：实现一个有弹性的世界

著：（英）梅里克·丹顿·汤普森 译：张善峰 校：邓位

我很荣幸也很高兴接受北京林业大学园林学院王向荣教授的邀请，来到中国参观访问、来北京林业大学发表学术演讲。本篇文章即是根据上述学术演讲内容整理而成。在英国曼彻斯特举办的2017年英国皇家风景园林学会年会上，王教授曾经为我们做了一个非常精彩的学术演讲。在那次大会上，我们交流了关于景观作为基础设施、促进经济发展、维护人们身心健康与提供社会福利的重要作用。在与王教授的交流过程中，我获益良多；尤其是王教授对于中国传统文化的深刻理解，并将其应用于场所营造中。

这是我第一次来到伟大的中国访问交流。我童年在东非与福克兰群岛（Falkland Islands）度过，因此，我清楚世界上存在巨大的文化与地理差异。我与我的同事在2017年英国皇家风景园林学会年会上，从多位杰出的中国风景园林学专家所作的学术报告中收益颇多，初步了解中国的风景园林行业面临的一些挑战。中国正处于快速的转型与发展过程中，中国的风景园林设计师正在以巨大的专业勇气与崭新方法去面对与解决这些挑战。

在很多方面，英国需要向中国学习。但是，我们在英国面临的情况与中国有很大的不同。英国是一个国土面积相对较小、人口密度很高的岛国，人口增长与自然资源消耗之间的矛盾一直是关注的焦点。因此，英国采取的人口、经济、土地之间的可持续性发展的道路正在成为我们重点审视的问题。

本篇文章就是根据我观察英国一些错误作法得到的成果。同时，我希望证明景观专业对于改变英国以及未来英国人民生活可以发挥作用。我也希望我将要讲述的内容对你们和你们的未来有意义，并对我们共同拥有的迷人世界的发展发挥作用。

1 伦敦市中心— 需要进行气候适应性设计，建立城市系统的弹性Central London—Places will need to adapt to climate change to build resilience

1 国际责任

作为一个具有战略性的前言，我必须回顾一下最近的历史。事实上，英国确实将一些污染问题输出到中国和印度，同时进口了大量的粮食。我们依靠金融服务与技术部门的实力制定的经济战略可能看上去是吸引人的，但是同时也使我们变得脆弱。我们错误评估了一些实体产业的价值，抛弃了这些产业。这样做的一个后果就是，英国的大部分社区已经失去了接纳、融合能力。实际上，我们忽视了人文的多样性，以及由此产生的人类社会相互共生的关系。英国以外的观察家可能会好奇，为什么一个民主制度会产生这么多不可预见的问题，比如，脱离欧盟。从某种程度上讲，这也是我们错误评估社会多样性价值的一个结果。因此，我们的社会失去弹性、变得脆弱。我很欣喜地看到，中国政府刚刚宣布停止从英国进口废塑料。与此同时，我的朋友戴维·阿滕伯勒（David Attenborough）在他主持的系列电视节目中提醒世界注意海洋中危险的塑料污染。进而，英国政府也突然宣布了一系列新政策限制人们日常对于塑料制品的过度使用。

2 风景园林专业

风景园林设计师是人类与自然系统之间的联系人。风景园林设计师掌握了自然科学、社会科学与生物学知识，具有的艺术和创造表现能力赋予了其独特的职业定位。通过对地表的土壤状况、气候条件、生物多样性及其地质演变过程进行分析解读，我们就可以找到设计场地的约束性（图1）。我认为，风景园林专业最适合引导土地利用的转型，以满足人民生活和社会发展的需要；同时保证土地利用转型的可持续性。你们可能已经注意到，我在这里使用了风景园林专业（Landscape Profession）这个术语；并且40年前，我们就做了一个关键决定，将风景园林师学会（Institute of Landscape Architects）改名为风景园林学会（Landscape Institute）。通过这样做，我们表达风景园林不应当仅仅被限定为一个投资建设项目的场地营造的角色、一个单纯的设计过程。事实上，设计过程在任何时候都只触及不到1%的土地；剩下的99%土地正在通过一直持续存在的管理过程发生转变。我们渴望成为城镇、乡村发展转型过程中的领导性专业；我们的职业身份包括风景园林科学家（生物学和社会学），风景园林规划师，风景园林建造师和风景园林管理者。这些都是非常具有创造力的职业，我将举例对此进行说明。

3 半自然的英国

2 不可持续的粮食生产方式抑制了土壤中健康的微生物含量Unsustainable food production supressing healthy microbial content of soils

我们可以说：英国没有任何东西是自然的，整个英国都是人类活动的产物。即使在最遥远的地方也保存有人类活动干扰的痕迹。你可能感兴趣的是，我们必须提醒一些生态学家同事，即最多产的栖息地是由农业活动创造的，并且它们的存在依赖于人类持续的管理。这将是一场有趣的辩论，探讨你们伟大的国家有多少地方可以被定义为完全没有被人类活动影响。在英国，科学家告诉我们，现在伴随着降雨而降落至地面的化学氮甚至比20世纪50年代时期农民使用氮肥还要多。这给自然界的平衡带来了真正的问题，即生物多样性正在被侵略性的物种所破坏，这些侵略性的物种控制着我们地表的草本植物层。2017年，我被邀请到英国上议院讨论为了保护英国橡树（Quercus robur）免于消亡，我们能做些什么？年轻与年老的英国橡树，有的橡树甚至已经有几百年的树龄，在突然面对大量繁殖的某些肉食昆虫以及一系列植物病害时，出现突然的倒伏、死亡。这是一次高层次的会议，但它却回避了对一些自然常识思考，即我们管理景观的方式的根本缺陷，无机肥料和各种杀虫剂、除草剂、杀菌剂的大量、随意使用造成的自然系统弹性的损失。推动农业发展背后的科学是聪明的，但还没有足够聪明。我们很大一部分农业耕作系统建立在压制自然系统的力量之上。如果我们要确保粮食的可持续生产，迫切需要转变我们的农业生产方式，要积极利用自然系统的力量（图2）。我预测，我们正在进入可能会拯救人类的生物科学的新时代，仿生学和基因安全管理将为我们的许多问题提供可持续的解决方案。

4 建立保护多功能乡村的政策框架

作为一个国土面积相对较小、人口密度很高的岛国，英国不能把乡村环境和城镇、城市看成是截然分开的不同部分。对于城市地区，我们有完善的土地利用规划体系和相关扩展计划，但是我们还没有明确的乡村景观的相关政策。

在过去的40年中，我们的乡村管理一直受到欧盟共同农业政策（Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union）的限制。这些善意的支持发展农村社区的措施已经产生了一系列未曾预想的结果，包括脆弱的粮食生产系统和乡村地区整体弹性的损失。受保护的农产品市场和价格体系几乎一夜之间就将大部分英国低地地区的耕牧混合农业消除。现在我们已经失去进行混合农业生产的技能和相关的基础设施。我们需要投资来帮助农业恢复健康的景观，并建立可持续的粮食生产系统。农场上的树木与森林已经失去了管理它们的劳动力，使得几乎80%的树木和森林缺少管理。城市扩张也造成了农田的损失。与预期一样，定居点、城镇、城市的建设总是位于肥沃农田旁边，这些居住区的扩张不可避免地造成肥沃农田的损失，但是这种状况被不可持续的粮食生产系统的发展以及大量的粮食进口所掩盖，被全社会所忽视。地球气候正在发生变化，我们正处在一个稳定气候的转换期。没有人能够准确预测气候会变化到哪个阶段，同样，没有人能够准确预测我们是否还会再拥有稳定的气候条件，拥有稳定的自然系统。当务之急是我们需要探索管理乡村地区的新方式，确保我们的城镇、城市免于洪涝灾害，确保每个人都能够获得清洁的水。上述和其他乡村地区的功能说明必须要形成一种城镇与乡村之间的健康、共生的关系。英国政府刚刚宣布了一系列关于乡村的新政策；其中，“25年环境规划”（25 Year Environment Plan）包含了大量政府公共部门介入、管理乡村地区事务方法的改变。

英国的乡村对于塑造英国的景观特色具有作用。但是，我们不得不接受这样一个事实，乡村仍旧是我们选择居住地与管理土地的副产品。每种乡村景观都具有自身特色；这些特色是人类根据乡村地区的土壤、地质、地形、小气候条件与生态系统特点进行开发、作用的结果。风景园林专业可以发现、绘制出这些景观特色的变化；对于英国来说就是已经完成了159种国家特色地区（National Character Areas）的识别（图3）。

在汉普郡议会倡议下，我的景观团队在20世纪80年代中期开始了英国乡村景观特色的评估工作；20世纪90年代，由英国自然和乡村署（English Nature and the Countryside Agency）的前身——自然英格兰的创始机构（Natural England’s founding bodies），首次出版发行的新英格兰地图就是基于这一开创性工作的成果。英国皇家风景园林学会正在建议国家政府使用国家特色地区图（National Character Area Map）作为制定以景观为尺度的政策框架，以确保对公共资金使用负责、新政策能得以实施。由于国家特色地区图将具有相似特点和特性的景观组合在一起，针对性介入措施会更有效率和效果。此外，通过对特色地区进行命名，公众也会易于接受与认同他们。

为了说明我们试图解决的问题的类型，我将介绍一个国家特色地区面临的一系列问题及其解决方案，这个特色地区涵盖了英格兰南部的白垩纪时期形成的地区（Chalk Formation）。我将以英国新划定的南唐斯（South Downs）国家公园为例进行说明。南唐斯国家公园风景秀丽毋庸置疑，但是，景观体验不仅仅是远距离欣赏乡村的风景，它是景观的颜色、气味、声音、味道和运动体验的综合，也包括其中的野生动物、气候条件以及它的健康状况的综合体验。从本质上说，浅层白垩土壤相对贫瘠。它的保水性很差，但是对无机肥料和各种农药的投入都有很好的产出效应。尽管这种农耕景观的粮食产量提升明显，但这种农业生产方式的后果还没有被研究与绘制出来。在过去的60年里，英国乡村地表景观以一种人们还没有完成理解的方式发生了剧烈的变化。一系列杀虫剂的使用杀死了土壤中的天然微生物，导致土壤中没有任何自然肥力。这些土壤的结构很差，它们正面临着侵蚀、流失，而且它们的碳含量很低。除蛞蝓农药的使用不仅杀死了蛞蝓，还杀死了其他生物；包括食蛞蝓的甲壳虫、刺猬、小型哺乳动物和它们的捕食者。草甘膦等除草剂杀死了无脊椎动物的食物。杀虫剂的使用正在杀死蜜蜂。数以百万吨的由天然气生产的硝酸盐正在从土壤中析出到含水层，所以在英国的一部分地区正进口水来稀释他们的饮用水。根据湿度的不同，25%的硝酸盐以一氧化二氮的形式污染空气，一氧化二氮对气候变化的影响要比二氧化碳高300倍。尽管许多景观已经被列为在册的古代遗迹（Scheduled Ancient Monuments），但是这些历史景观正被农业耕作侵蚀。并且，这些农业其实并不赚钱，51%的利润来自于公共投资。更应该令社会担忧的是，英国粮食生产的很大比例是不可持续的。英国皇家风景园林学会的示范农场［由亨利·埃德蒙兹（Henry Edmunds）所有和耕种］非常好地展示了利用自然系统的力量同样可以生产足够的粮食（图4）。在南唐斯国家公园同样的浅层白垩土上，亨利在一个综合农作物管理系统中种植汉普郡红豆草（Onobrychis Viciifolia）和其他豆科作物固定空气中的氮。由于采用了亨利的方法，南唐斯国家公园的景观中充满了野生动物。例如，在亨利的农场中已发现了英国拥有23种黄蜂中的18种。他的混合农业生产方式使农业生产系统保持了一定水平的弹性，而现在大部分的英国农业生产系统已经不具备这种弹性。

在英国，我们必须重新思考我们的食品生产政策，并与其他对社会有重要作用的产品联系起来。我们正在探索一个从维持生命的基本要素开始的自然资产核算的方法。我们必须把清洁的空气和干净的水看作是公共产品。我们必须恢复具有丰富微生物的土壤，并将具有自然生产力的土壤留给我们的下一代。我们必须对无法控制的诸如气候、生物多样性变化等具一定的弹性适应能力。我们必须确保土壤的碳封存能力，我们需要对土壤的碳封存性能进行检查。我们需要恢复曾经创造出英国乡村丰富生物多样性的自然系统，并使乡村实现现代化；这不但有关在乡村生活的人们的健康与福祉，对发展乡村旅游也同样重要。我们需要将人们的生活与粮食生产重新联系起来，我们必须减少食物浪费。我们必须将粮食生产与饮食习惯联系起来，这意味着农业生产会更多地转向园艺种植和水果、蔬菜和坚果生产。我们还需要评估动物的健康和福祉，并从集中的牧场生产系统转向分散的系统。英国目前40%的粮食来自进口，确保粮食安全是一个挑战。我们需要建立可持续的农业方式来生产我们所需的粮食；同时，改变人们的饮食习惯和减少食物浪费也是一种途径。

5 绿带

英国的土地利用规划体系成功地保留了城镇与乡村的区别。但是正如你所预料那样，随着人口增加以及相应土地使用需求的增加，土地资源不断减少，城市与乡村空间保护面临着巨大的压力。比如，绿带法就面临巨大的压力（图5）。绿带法（Green Belt）保护了开敞空间，防止城市蔓延和带状发展。但是，这一立法在早于现在已经被广泛接受的可持续发展理念之前。在全英国范围内，绿带法并没有得到均等的应用；随着发展压力越来越大，绿带法中的许多不足开始显现出来。例如，由于绿带法的约束，一些城镇和城市在发展空间拓展上受到限制。此外，还有许多城镇与城市的实践表明，绿带法影响了城市基础设施最大功效的发挥。最初，制定的绿带法是给郡（县）议会的战略规划部门使用，但是这一级别的规划管理机构已经取消。并且，由于绿带法与土地利用相关，绿带法应该被战略性地重新评估。我们正在发起关于土地综合利用的讨论，特别是针对临近城市人口聚居地的土地。我们希望乡村开放空间、绿带提供的公共产品能够更加突出弹性建设，如洪水管理、公众健康和社会福祉获取，生物多样性质量和数量的改变等。我们也在大力推动绿带转型，通过法定的管理计划确保急需的景观功能和质量的改进。

6 政府的关键盟友

在我审视景观专业为城市发展和城市人口问题服务之前，我先解释一下英国皇家风景园林学会与英国政府之间的关系。正如你所知道的一样，英国皇家风景园林学会是代表景观专业的专业组织，通过专业培训、专业进修、专业研究和制定发展政策来赋予这个专业的力量。作为一个正式注册的公益性组织，英国皇家风景园林学会开展的活动限定在为公众提供服务上。如今，英国人开始意识到，过去未能在财富创造和公共支出之间维持合理的平衡。因此，在人们寿命延长造成的社会保障成本持续增加的情况下，每次减少公共开支都面临巨大的压力。我们认为，我们有责任仔细审视政府的行为，面对由于政府的错误措施造成的景观改变使公众利受损时，当好政府的关键盟友。当然以这种方式与政府打交道时，平衡各种利益冲突通常也是很困难的。

7 空间规划

3 英国国家特色地区图，根据人数活动对自然生态系统影响确定了159种英国国家特色地区National Character Map of England, 159 Landscaper Character Areas defined by human activity impacting on natural systems

今天，英国的许多城镇、城市的可用住房都出现了巨大的缺口，这并不局限于英国东南部或者大伦敦地区（图6）。同时，在全英国范围内，房产价值也存在巨大的差异。造成可用住房短缺的原因并不简单；但是，规划体系具有的局限作用已经受到很大的批评。另一种批评则指责开发商没有足够快的完成土地开发、住房建造。还有一些批评指向了二套住房的所有者以及大量存在的空置住房。有一种比较普遍的观点认为，由于英国的规划体系过于死板，规划的作用在过去的几年里被现任政府大大弱化了。我们的规划体系是基于国家政策，通过国家规划政策框架构建；规划实施是通过地方政府制定的相应地方规划实现，更详细的社区规划是由当地社区制定实现。其中，英国规划体系的一个不足是：景观并不是土地使用规划的法定内容。唯一涉及景观内容的法定规划是针对我们受保护的景观，包括大约占乡村地区面积23%的国家公园、优美的自然风景区。由于景观不是法定规划内容，政府的财政紧缩已经导致英国的规划系统消减了大约50%的景观设计师职位。

空间规划及其管理的变化趋势已经来到了这样一个时间节点：整个英国都开始理解高品质多功能景观的重要性，它有利于每个人的健康和幸福，同时还能增加人们的财富。100年前，80%的人口生活在农村。今天，这个数字已经颠倒过来了，80%的人生活在我们的城镇和城市里。我们的城镇和城市因此面临着巨大的空间拓展压力，以容纳更大的人口密度。这时，一项新的重要任务开始出现，即管理我们的城镇和城市中心，以应对不断变化的环境。在我们的许多城市里，空气质量是不可接受的。仅在伦敦，每年就有10000人由于空气质量差而死亡。由于地表被不透水面层覆盖，过度抽取地下水已经导致地下水正在被耗尽，同时水质也直接受到了影响；在很多城市里，上述情况已经达到不可持续的状况。同时，我们的大部分开放空间质量都很差；地方政府要求降低公园管理成本，这使其变得更糟。因此，我们面临着改变我们的城市和乡村景观命运的巨大挑战。

英国政府正在探索可能的方法，为那些过去难以量化的资产计算价值。自然资产核算（Natural Capital Accounting）仍处于起步阶段，还不能确保应用于对投资预算系统的重组，比如零基预算法（zero base budgeting）。我们确实有许多实例，即将某一空间改造成多功能的空间后带来的收益进行量化，这种长期收益包括社区居民健康与幸福生活节省的当地社区的公共支出。如果我们对投资预算系统进行根本性的改革，那么这些账户需要由政府财政部门进行审计。

景观专业对应对这些新挑战的策略非常有信心，我们将掌握包括艺术和科学领域的广泛技能以推动变革。社会科学知识和生物科学知识一样重要。我们已经有了新的构想，即为公共部门装备必要的“智能客户端”，使其可以方便获得私营景观部门提供的景观实施绩效数据。我们正在推动使景观成为法定土地利用规划体系中的重要内容，使景观发挥更加重要的作用。我们正利用城市更新规划和相关发展规划，积极推广高质量景观/绿色基础设施的标准。我们通过投入与收入测算，展示了最佳景观实践措施对实施城市可持续排水计划（Sustainable Urban Drainage schemes）的作用。同时，在乡村地区使用最佳景观实践措施，能够提升城镇与城市的弹性，提升其对不可预测气候变化的抵御能力。我们正通过制定开发政策和日常管理作为英国皇家风景园林学会与政府相关部门的首要任务，以推动景观转型。与此同时，我们是社会变革的观察者，我们需要对运用景观专业解决社会问题的机遇保持警醒。抓住这些机遇，我们的专业技能就可以发挥更大作用。对此，利用景观改善英国儿童的状况就是一个例子。

4 乔尔德顿庄园（Cholderton Estate）利用自然生态系统和土壤的自然肥力生产优质的粮食。亨利（Henry）种植汉普郡红豆草（Onobrychis Viciifolia）固定空气中的氮，然后将其缓慢释放到土壤中The Cholderton Estate harnesses the power of natural fertility and ecosystems to produce good food. Henry in a field of Hampshire Sanfoin (Onobrychis Viciifolia) which fixes airborne nitrogen for slow release to the soil

5 临近城市中心的绿带需要改造成多功能型景观Green Belt close to urban centres needs transforming to produce multi-functional landscapes

8 儿童的状况

现在英国年轻一代面临的一系列新压力正在造成长期问题，其后果尚未得到充分研究（图7）。这些问题包括：儿童失踪的新闻刺激父母对儿童的过度保护；教育系统不能完全适应学习方式的差异；儿童日常生活与大自然的隔离；社交媒体的吸引；儿童反社会的风险没有被充分关注，并且儿童面临的最大危险是无法从冒险行为中获得教训；食品安全问题；家庭破碎问题……这些问题只是导致英国儿童形成非常不好乃至糟糕的童年经历一部分。肥胖和心理不健康也是上述问题造成的后果，如果不解决，将导致长期的社会成本。

长久以来，社会已经习惯把孩子们的游戏活动驱逐到设计的运动场上。这些运动场都是由那些自认为知道儿童需要什么的成年人设计。我相信大家都知道游戏是儿童学习和成长的一种先天机制。各种各样的游戏需求一直都在变化，它是原始的、掠夺性的。我们需要积极鼓励创造性和想象力的游戏、领域性和社会性游戏、启发性和冒险性游戏。如何提供，以及提供什么样的最适宜环境才能使儿童通过游戏获得最大的成长收益，这些都需要进行全面探索或研究。这个话题因为英国所面对的文化多样性而变得更加复杂。现在，在任何一所学校里，有40多种不同的语言在使用都是很常见的情况。今天，很大一部分儿童只在学校运动场上游戏，运动场是父母认为安全的游戏场地。在过去的40年里，由于人们对“危险的陌生人”和道路上存在致命危险的认同，儿童从家步行到学校的距离被大大缩短了。太多的年轻人处于精神和身体双重亚健康状态。我们主张景观专业可以比其他专业做更多的事情来改变儿童们的生活。当然，并不是所有影响儿童的负面因素都可以由我们来解决。

6 建设家园的可持续排水系统Sustainable Urban Drainage in building homes

我们的起始关注点是改善儿童生活最明显的地方—学校。直到最近，我们的正规教育系统关注的中心仍旧是儿童们在教室里的集中学习，没有全国性的学校设计指南关注室外对于儿童成长的重要性。在风景园林师的推动下，并且经过20世纪80年代的研究之后，政府出台了71号建筑公告：“户外教室”（Out Door Classroom）政策。尽管如此，太多的学校未能利用室外景观为儿童的成长提供最优的机会。也许我们在为儿童设计时面临的最大挑战之一是如何为儿童大多数课程提供体验式学习的一系列户外设施（图8）。这不但对每个儿童都很重要，而且对于提高使用最受欢迎的体验式学习的比例同样重要。我已经说过复杂的景观对于最大限度地发挥游戏在促进儿童发展方面的潜力。这些鼓励儿童交往的户外设施对他们的心理健康和社会稳定非常重要。让儿童重新与自然、生态系统接触具有的改善儿童心理健康的重要作用，这已经获得大家共识。同样重要的是，户外景观可以创造出多样化、具有挑战性的环境，可以激发儿童通过正规运动或者自由的肢体活动来使用户外场地的热情（图9）。与此同时，我们必须制定一种景观标准，其中包括设定一定程度模式化和图像的学习场所。

设计针对儿童景观的另一个挑战是，满足社会文化的多样性以及儿童的各种特殊需求。在这里，让我有机会介绍一下英国皇家风景园林学会的下一任主席—亚当·怀特（Adam White），他对设计适合自闭症儿童和其他发育障碍儿童的景观展现出杰出的敏感性。

设计儿童需要的景观不应当局限于学校。我们必须将关注与设计儿童需要的景观拓展到靠近他们居住的地方、他们可以很容易到达的地方。从城市中心到城市边缘区，从城市公园到乡村国家公园。如果我们现在不以这种方式改变儿童的生活，那么将来的社会代价将是巨大的；不仅仅是恢复精神和身体健康的代价，还包括由于错失儿童潜能开发对国家未来经济发展造成的巨大损失。我正在寻求合作和资金支持，大家一起寻找证明上述内容的证据；同时，设计实施一个商业案例，引导社会公众关注儿童的生活状态。这种做法就像斯特恩爵士（Lord Stern）转变英国财政部对气候变化的态度、接受气候变化可能对世界经济长期潜在的影响一样。

9 关爱老人

推动景观转型以满足老年人多样和复杂的需求同样重要。通过各种景观方案让老年人保持身体健康和心态积极乐观，这也应该是社会关爱老人战略的一部分内容。创造有助于交往、互动的景观很简单，但很少被真正付诸实践；甚至可以怀疑，这些景观真正是为盲人、聋人和残疾人设计的吗（图10）。最近的研究还揭示景观也具有维持痴呆症人群生活质量的作用。

10 家园而不是房子

我们想尽快为所有人提供住房，这使得英国处于一种危险的状况中；人们采用快捷方式非常迅速地建造房子，破坏了我们的监管体系。英国皇家风景园林学会正在敦促政府通过强调家园建设的重要性来保证房子的质量，即家园建设要满足可持续生活的需要。家园是我们生活和工作的地方。家园不但要满足年轻人和老年人的需求，还要达到许多其他的标准；其中的有些标准需要由新家园建造过程中的景观结构实现。家园必须是安全的，有干净的水和空气；它们应该处在安静的地方。家园应该把人们的生活和粮食生产重新连接起来；家园应该能够接触到丰富的野生动物，对极端气候事件有抵抗力，是能源的净输出方，能够控制小气候，能够实现雨水的可持续排放，是合适生活的优美场所（图11）。恰当的规划还将确保这些新社区能够依赖于当地生产的粮食和服务实现生存与发展。如果这些新社区要成为优良的居所，那么各种不可持续的被迫出行的需求会大大减少。

11 风景园林与实现弹性

风景园林从业人员受到的专业训练、具备的技能和专业特性非常有助于我们建立人们生活社区的弹性。将艺术的创造力与不断发展的诸如生物学、社会学等相关知识结合起来，就会找到解决方案。作为一种专业，我们有机会、有责任去面对我们世界面临的挑战。最后，我们希望这可以成为中英两国风景园林专业之间长期合作关系的开始，我们期待长期的合作。中国现在的发展非常快，发展过程中伴随着环境的巨大变化。我们有很多可以相互学习的地方。现在是人类面临共同挑战的时代，而不是竞争的时代，我们需要共同努力解决所面临的共同问题。

注释（Notes）：

图1来自环境署（拍摄者名字不确定）；图2为自然英格兰；图3、4来源于梅里克·丹顿·汤普森；图5来源于奥雅纳；图6来源于詹姆斯勋爵；图7～9来自景观学习基金会；图10来源自朴茨茅斯市议会；图11来自皮特·穆林。

Fig. 1©Environment Agency (artist name being sought);Fig. 2©Natural England; Fig. 3, 4©M.Denton-Thompson;Fig. 5©ARUP; Fig. 6©James Lord; Fig. 7～9©The Learning Through Landscapes Trust; Fig. 10©Portsmouth City Council; Fig. 11©Pete Mullin.

I was honoured and delighted when Professor Xiangrong Wang of the Beijing Forestry University invited me to visit your country and speak to students at the University. This article is based on that presentation. Professor Wang very kindly delivered an outstanding lecture to the Landscape Institute’s annual conference held in Manchester in 2017,when we debated the importance of Landscape as Infrastructure, driving economic performance,health and wellbeing in society. We learnt a great deal from Professor Wang, but one of the most powerful lessons was the authority he gained from reaching deep into ancient Chinese culture every time, as the foundation for place making.

It was my first visit to your great country.My childhood was spent in East Africa and the Falkland Islands, consequently I am very aware of the huge cultural and geographic diversity of this world of ours. My colleagues and I learnt a great deal from meeting so many outstanding professionals and we had a glimpse of the sort of challenges you are facing in China. You are transforming and developing your country at huge pace, you are tackling the challenges with fortitude and innovation.

We in the UK have much to learn from China. The circumstances we face in the United Kingdom are very different; in particular, we are a small, heavily populated island where the potential conflicts between population growth and natural resources come into sharp focus. The sustainability of the way we manage our people,our economy and our land is coming under considerable scrutiny.

I have based this article on my observations of where things are going wrong in my great country. But at the same time, I wish to demonstrate how the landscape profession will contribute to changing the fortunes of the UK and its people. My hope is that some of what I am about to tell you is of interest to you and might be relevant to your own future contributions to this fascinating world we share.

1 International Responsibility

As a strategic foreword, I have to reflect on a little of the recent past. The United Kingdom has, in effect, exported its pollution problems to China and India, and we import much of the food we consume. Our economic strategy, which depends on the strength of the financial services and technology sectors, might be attractive, but has left us vulnerable. We have banished practical skills by failing to value them, and in so doing, we have left large areas of the community disabled.In effect, we have ignored both the diversity that exists in humanity, and the symbiotic relationship that diversity creates. Observers from outside the UK might wonder why a democracy is producing such unpredictable events, such as leaving the European Union. In part, this is explained by our failure to value diversity. So our resilience is made more fragile. I am delighted that China has just rejected taking waste plastic from the UK, which has coincided with my friend David Attenborough’s television series alerting the world to the dangerous state of waste plastic in the world’s oceans.Suddenly, our government announces a series of new policies on restricting the use of plastics in everyday life.

2 The Landscape Profession

We stand at the interface between people and natural systems. It is an almost unique position as we are trained in the sciences – social and biological, as well as being remarkably creative through the arts. Through an understanding of our land, its soils, its climate, its biological diversity and its geological origins, we are only too aware of its limitations(Fig. 1). I would argue that we are best placed to direct the transformation of our land to meet the needs of people and society itself, while at the same time ensuring the sustainability of the outcome. You may have noticed my use of the words ‘Landscape Profession’ – 40 years ago we made a critical decision to rename the Institute of Landscape Architects to the Landscape Institute,and in so doing we acknowledged that transforming landscapes was not confined to the construction of places in a capital programme, not confined to the process of design. Indeed the process of design touches less than 1% of the land at any one time;the remaining 99% is being transformed all the time through management processes. We aspire to be the lead profession in the transformation of both town and country. We include in our skill base Landscape Scientists (biological and social),Landscape Planners, Landscape Architects and Landscape Managers. These are all deeply creative professions in their own right and I hope to illustrate examples of this.

3 Semi-Natural Britain

We can argue that nothing in the UK is natural: that the entirety of Great Britain is a legacy of human activity. Even the most remote places hold evidence of human interventions; you will be interested to hear that we have to remind some of our ecologist colleagues that the richest terrestrial habitats have been created by farming - and that their existence depends on the continuation of human management. It would be an interesting debate to discuss what proportion of your great country can be described as un-touched by human activity. In the United Kingdom scientists tell us that more nitrogen is falling as rain today than was applied by farmers in the 1950s. This is now causing real problems in the balance of fertility,where the biological diversity is being lost by aggressive species dominating our herb layer. 2017,I was invited to our House of Lords to discuss urgently what we can do about the demise of the English Oak (Quercus robur). Trees young and old, some that are many hundreds of years old,are suddenly failing and being subjected to blooms in populations of specific predatory insects and a range of diseases. This was a high level meeting,and yet it avoided the obvious: the fundamental flaw in the way we manage the landscape; the huge loss of resilience caused by the unintended consequences of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides of all sorts – insecticides, herbicides and fungicides.The science behind agricultural developments has been clever, but not clever enough. A very high proportion of our farming systems have focussed on supressing the power of natural systems and we urgently need to transform our agriculture to harness this power if we are to secure sustainably produced food(Fig. 2). I predict that we are entering a new era of biological sciences that might just save the human race, where bio-mimicry and safe genetic management provide us with sustainable solutions to many of our problems.

4 Setting the framework to secure a multi-functional countryside

As a small, heavily populated island, the UK can no longer see our rural environments and our towns and cities as distinctly separate. We have a refined land use planning system for our urban areas and associated expansion programme, but for our rural landscapes there is no clear policy.

The management of our countryside has been constrained for the last 40 years by the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union. Well-meaning interventions to support the farming community, have had a series of unintended consequences, including fragile food production systems and the loss of resilience for the country as a whole. The guaranteed market and guaranteed price removed mixed farming from much of lowland Britain almost overnight.We have lost the skills and the infrastructure for mixed farming, and we will need to invest to help the industry restore a healthy landscape and adopt food production systems that are sustainable.On-farm woods and forestry have lost the farm labour needed to manage them, with almost 80%of woods and forests not being managed. Urban expansion has also taken its toll on our farmland.As you would expect, the origins of settlements,of towns and cities, were always located close to fertile land. The inevitable expansion of those same settlements secured the loss of that fertile land, but this fact has been hidden from society by the development of unsustainable food production systems and by the importation of food. Our climate is changing, we are in a period of transition from a stable climate, no-one can accurately predict the stages we are going to go through nor can they predict if we are ever to have a stable climate again and of course they are unable to predict the nature of that stability. As a matter of urgency, we have to explore the way we manage the countryside; to protect many of our towns and cities from flooding while at the same time ensuring that everyone has access to clean water. These and many other rural functions demonstrate the need to develop a healthy symbiotic relationship between town and country. Our Government has just announced a new range of policies for our country, the 25 Year Environment Plan, which includes changes to the way the public sector intervenes in countryside management.

The British countryside helps define our nation but we have to accept that it is a by-product of the way we have chosen to settle and manage our land. One of its defining images is the great variety in character created by human activity on the variations in soil type, geology, topography,micro-climate and ecosystems. The Landscape Profession has mapped these distinct variations and for England has identified 159 different National Character Areas(Fig. 3).

My landscape team in Hampshire County Council pioneered landscape character assessments in the mid-1980s, and the new map of England–first published by Natural England’s founding bodies(English Nature and the Countryside Agency) in the 1990s - was based on that pioneering work. The Landscape Institute is recommending that the UK Government makes use of the National Character Area Map as the framework for setting new policy at a landscape scale, for being accountable in the use of public money, and for securing delivery of new policies. As National Character Areas group together landscapes with similar features and characteristics, the targeting of specific interventions for specific results should be more efficient and effective. By giving names to these different places, the public can easily identify with them.

7 让孩子的生活能够重新接触到土地以及其生命支持系统，改善孩子的身心健康Reconnecting children with the earth and its life support systems to improve both mental and physical health

8 孩子的学习偏好存在差异，许多孩子喜欢体验式学习的方式Learning preferences differ amongst children, many prefer experiential learning

9 各种游戏对孩子的成长都至关重要，比如在游戏过程中可以培养孩子的交往能力、领域感、冒险精神、想象力等All aspects of play are crucial to the development of children – social, territorial, risk, imaginative amongst many others

To illustrate the type of problems we are trying to resolve I will describe a range of issues and solutions for one group of National Character Areas covering the Chalk Formation of Southern England. I will focus attention on one of the UK’s National Parks, the newly designated South Downs National Park. Although scenically outstanding the National Park does not merit close examination.The landscape experience is more than long views over rolling countryside: it is a landscape’s colour,smell, sound, taste, and movement; its wildlife,its climate, and its health. By its nature, shallow chalk soil is relatively infertile. It dries out quickly and responds very well to agricultural inputs of inorganic fertilizer and all kinds of pesticide.Although food production levels from these landscapes has risen, the consequences have not been mapped. Changes to the landscape have been dramatic over the last 60 years but have happened in a way that the public have not fully understood.The unintended consequences of the use of a range of pesticides have destroyed the natural microbial content of the soils leaving the soil without any natural fertility. These soils are being lost through erosion, they are poor in structure, and their carbon content is very low. The application of slug pellets has killed not just slugs, but everything else: slug-eating beetles, hedgehogs, small mammals and their predators. Herbicides such asglyphosate have killed the food plants of invertebrates. The use of insecticides is killing our bees. The application of millions of tons of nitrates manufactured from natural gas is leaching into aquifers, so in parts of the country we are importing water to dilute our drinking water. Depending on humidity, 25% of applied nitrates pollute the air with nitrous oxide,which is 300 times worse than carbon dioxide as a climate change gas. Despite many of them having protected status as Scheduled Ancient Monuments, our historic landscapes are being eroded through ploughing. But this is not profitable farming: 51% of the profits are made up of public investment. More worrying to society is the fact that a very high proportion of food production is not sustainable. The Landscape Institute’s demonstration farm owned and farmed by Henry Edmunds demonstrates how perfectly adequate food production can be achieved by harnessing the power of natural systems(Fig. 4). On the same shallow chalk soil of the South Downs, Henry uses Hampshire Sanfoin (Onobrychis Viciifolia) and other legumes to fix nitrogen from the air in an integrated crop management system. As a result of his approach the landscape is teeming with wildlife:for example, he has 18 different species of bumble bee on his farm (out of only 23 species in the UK).His mixed farming system has sustained a level of resilience that has been stripped away from much of UK agriculture.

We in the UK must rethink our food production policies and link them directly with other outcomes that are so important to our society. We are exploring a natural capital accounting process that start with the basic ingredients of sustaining life. We have to see clean air and clean water as public goods. We have to secure restored soils, rich in microbial life to secure natural fertility to pass on to our children. We have to build resilience to processes that we have little control over – those of climate change and bio-security. We have to secure the sequestration of carbon in our soils and we need to audit soil performance in that sequestration. We need to restore the sustainable systems that created the rich diversity of the British countryside and modernise access to it, for health and wellbeing as well as for tourism. We need to reconnect people with food growing and we have to reduce food waste. We must link food production to diet which means moving more towards horticulture and the growing of fruit, salads, vegetables and nuts. We also need to review animal health and wellbeing, and move away from intensive systems towards extensive land management. The UK currently imports 40% of its food and it will be a challenge to secure the food we need through farming sustainably, but it can be done by changing diets and removing food waste.

5 The Green Belt

Our land use planning system has successfully retained the distinction between town and country. But as you would expect it is coming under extreme pressure as populations grow and increased demand is placed on an ever decreasing land resource. One such policy, the Green Belt, is coming under huge pressure(Fig. 5). Green Belt legislation keeps land free from development to prevent the coalescence of cities and towns and prevents ribbon development. But this planning legislation pre-dates the new imperative for sustainable development. The designation of Green Belt was not applied evenly across the country and as pressure for development increases, a number of weaknesses in the system have emerged. For example some towns and cities are being ‘strangled’,unable to grow, because of the Green Belt. There are also many examples where the designation is preventing the best use of infrastructure. The designation of Green Belt was left to strategic planning authorities based around county councils and this level of planning administration has disappeared. However, there is another reason why the designation should be strategically reviewed,which has to do with land use. We are leading the debate for multi-functional use of land, especially where that land is close to urban populations. We expect all public goods required from the open countryside, including the Green Belt, to give more emphasis to building resilience, flood elevation,access for health and wellbeing, and transforming the quality and extent of biodiversity. We are also strongly promoting the transformation of the Green Belt through Statutory Management Plans to secure much-needed improvements to both the function and quality of the landscape.

6 Critical Friend to the Government

Before I examine the challenges faced by the Landscape Profession in servicing development and urban populations, I ought to explain the relationship between the Landscape Institute and the UK Government. As you know the Landscape Institute is the professional organisation representing the Landscape Profession. It empowers the profession through training,continuing professional development (CPD),research and policy development. As a registered charity the Institute is restricted in how it campaigns by confining such activity to the services it provides the public. Today in the UK there is a new realisation that in the past, the country has failed to sustain a sensible balance between wealth generation and public expenditure. Consequently,there is enormous pressure to reduce public expenditure at a time when social care costs are rising from people living longer. We believe it is our duty to scrutinize Government actions and act as a‘critical friend’ in instances where the public suffer as a consequence of changes to the landscape caused by failures in government. It can be difficult to balance conflicting interests when dealing with the government in this way.

7 Spatial Planning

Today there is a huge projected shortfall in available housing in many of our towns and cities - and this is not confined to the South East of the UK or Greater London(Fig. 6). There is also a huge disparity in the value of properties across the nation. The reason for shortfall is not simple but the blame has been placed on our planning system being too restrictive, on developers who are not developing land with consent to build quickly enough, on the number of second homes and on the number of empty properties. There is a widely held view that because it was seen to be too restrictive, the UK planning system has been considerably weakened over the last few years by the current government. Our planning system is based on national policy, through the National Planning Policy Framework, and its implementation is achieved through a system of Local Plans prepared by local government (with more detailed Neighbourhood Plans prepared by local communities). One of the weaknesses of our system is that landscape is not a statutory requirement in land use planning. The only statutory reference to landscape is confined to the designation of our protected landscapes: National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty,which cover 23% of our countryside.Because landscape is not a statutory function, government austerity has resulted in the loss of over 50% of landscape professionals from our planning system.

These trends in spatial planning and the way it is administered have come at a time when the country as a whole is beginning to understand the importance of high quality, multi-functional landscapes that can transform the health and wellbeing of everyone and, at the same time,improve economic performance of its people.100 years ago 80% of the population lived in the countryside. Today that figure has reversed with 80% living in our towns and cities. There is enormous pressure to extend our towns and cities making them absorb greater densities. There is a new imperative to manage our town and city centres to respond to changing circumstances. In many of our urban conurbations the quality of our air is unacceptable with 10,000 deaths a year in London alone being attributed to poor air quality.Aquifers are being depleted by hard surfaces capping the ground, by over abstraction and water quality is being directly affected. Wildlife in both our towns and countryside has been radically depleted, in many cases to unsustainable levels, as I have already mentioned. With too few exceptions the quality of our open spaces is poor, made worse by the pressure on local government to reduce costs of managing public parks. So we have a huge challenge on our hands to change the fortune of our landscapes of both town and country.

Our Government is in the process of exploring potential ways of giving values to assets that have been difficult to quantify in the past.Natural Capital Accounting is still in its infancy and has yet to secure the necessary restructuring of systems of investment, such as zero base budgeting. We do have a number of examples where transformation of places to be multifunctional have been quantified with long-term pay back arising from savings in the health and wellbeing of local communities.These accounts need to be audited by the Government’s Treasury if we are to secure the fundamental changes to investment that is so desperately needed.

10 我们正在步入老龄化社会，恰当的针对性景观可以改变老人与病人的生活质量Our populations are getting older, appropriately designed landscapes can transform the lives of the elderly and sick

11 在我们的家园周围，把人们的生活与粮食生产重新连接起来Reconnecting our people to food growing around our homes

Our strategy to meet these new challenges are very ambitious, we will be equipping our profession with the breadth of skills across the arts and sciences to drive change. Social sciences being just as critical as the biological sciences. We have new ideas to equip the public sector with the necessary‘intelligent client functions’ needed to obtain the very best results of landscape delivery from the private sector. We are pushing for Landscape to feature as an important change to our statutory land use planning system. We are actively promoting high quality landscape/green infrastructure standards through urban regeneration programmes and associated development. We are demonstrating best practice in delivering Sustainable Urban Drainage schemes through capital and revenue programmes, at the same time as building resilience to unpredictable weather patterns in our rural areas in support of our towns and cities. We are putting the transformation of landscape through policy development and day to day management decisions to the top of our agenda and that of the Government. At the same time we are observers to social changes and remain vigilant to opportunities for the Landscape Profession to resolve issues in society where our skills can make a major contribution. An example of this intervention is how the profession might improve the state of childhood in the UK.

8 The State of Childhood

A range of emerging pressures faced by young people today in the UK are creating long term problems the consequences of which have yet to be fully researched(Fig. 7). These include: the over protective parental controls stimulated by the immediate news of disappearing children, an education system that fails to fully adjust to the differences in learning styles, the severance of children from nature, the attraction of social media, the risk averse society not fully appreciating that the greatest risk to children is not being able to experience from taking risks, the food we eat and family break up – are just a few of the influencing factors leading to a very poor and deteriorating state of childhood in the UK. Obesity and decline in mental health are the consequences which, if not resolved, will lead to long term costs to society.

For too long society has banished play to the designed playground, all too often designed by adults who think they know what children need. As I am sure you all know play is the instinctive mechanism inbuilt in children for learning and development. The great variety in play needs are ever changing,unregulated it is primeval and predatory, we need to actively encourage creative and imaginative play, territorial and social play, developmental and risk play.How it is provided for and what is the optimum environment to maximise the development of children through play has yet to be fully explored or understood. The entire topic is made more complex by the great variety in cultures that we, in the UK, are having to plan for. It is now quite common for more than 40 different languages being spoken in any one school. Today, a very high proportion of our children only experience outside play in the school playground –, which is seen by parents as a safe play environment. The distance from the home that children roam has shrunk enormously over the last 40 years, because of the perception of ‘stranger danger’ and the lethal condition of our roads. Too many of our young people are mentally and physically unfit.Our proposition is that the landscape profession can do more to transform the lives of children than any other. This accepts that not all of the negative elements affecting children can be resolved by us.

Our starting point on improving the lives of children was to focus on the most obvious place – the school grounds. Up until fairly recently, our formal education system concentrated on learning in the class room, with no national school design guidance covering the importance of outside child development.It was the landscape profession that changed Government policy through the publication of the Out Door Classroom, Building Bulletin 71 following research in the 1980s. Despite this too many schools fail to provide a landscape that secures the optimum opportunities for child development. Perhaps one of the greatest challenges that we have in designing for children is how to provide the complex array of facilities for experiential learning across the majority of the curriculum(Fig. 8). This is important not for every child, but for the significant proportion where experiential is the favoured learning style.I have already touched on the complex landscapes to maximise the potential of play in child development. The facilities to encourage the making of friends for life is so important to mental health and social stability.The reconnection of our children to nature and natural systems is beginning to be recognised as playing a vital role in improving mental health.Equally important is the landscape that motivates constant activity by the diversity of a challenging environment either through formal games unstructured physical activity, or both(Fig. 9).At the same time we have to give an order to the landscape that sets a degree of formality and an image of a place of learning.

An added challenge to the design of child–focussed landscapes includes variations because of a multi-cultural society and meeting the variety of special needs that young people have. This gives me the opportunity to mention the next President of the Landscape Institute – Adam White who has demonstrated an outstanding sensitivity to meeting the needs of children with autism and other developmental disabilities.

Meeting the needs of children in this way cannot be confined to the school. We have to spread our attention to deliver child-centred landscapes to places close to where they live, and that they can access easily: from our urban centres to urban fringes, from our urban parks to our rural national parks. If we do not transform the lives of our children in this way, the cost to society will be enormous, not just through the cost of trying to restore both mental and physical health but also the huge loss of potential skills to our economy. I am looking for collaborative support and funding to draw all the evidence together to produce the business case to drive public intervention into the state of childhood in the same way as Lord Stern did in transforming the Treasury’s attitude to Climate Change and the potential long term implications on the world economy.

9 Care for the Elderly

Equally important is the attention needed to drive landscape transformation to meet the variety and complex needs of people at the other end of life. Keeping people fit and mentally active in old age through the variety of landscape solutions should be part of society’s overall strategy in supporting them. Creating landscapes that nurture social interaction is simple yet rarely delivered(Fig. 10). As indeed are those landscapes designed for the blind, the deaf and the disabled.Recent research also shows the power of landscape to sustain the quality of life of those suffering dementia.

10 Homes not Housing

In our haste to recover our ability to house everyone, the UK is in danger of building homes very quickly by taking short cuts and undermining our regulatory system. The Landscape Institute is urging the Government to sustain the quality of housing by emphasising the importance building homes that meet the needs of sustainable living.These are places where so many of us will both live and work. As well as meeting the needs of young and old in the way I have described there are numerous other standards to be achieved by the landscape structure within which new homes are built. They must be safe, with clean water and clean air, they should be tranquil places. They should reconnect people with food growing, they should be teeming with wildlife, resilient to extreme climatic events, they should be net exporters of energy, they should have their micro-climates controlled, they should be drained sustainably and they should be exquisite places to live(Fig. 11).Appropriate planning will also ensure that these new communities rely on locally sourced goods and services. If they are great places the need to travel,unsustainably, will be radically reduced.

11 Landscape and Delivering Resilience

The training, skills and instincts of the landscape profession can contribute so much to building resilience into our people and the places they occupy. Solutions will emerge that combine the imagination of the arts with the evolving disciplines around the sciences – both biological and social. As a profession we have both the opportunity and responsibility to take on the challenges our world is facing.

Finally, it is our hope that this can be the start of a long-term relationship between our countries and we look forward to years of collaboration. In China, you are moving so fast with transforming your environment and we have much to learn from each other. These are challenging times for humanity and rather than competing we need to work together on resolving the common problems we all face.