Linguistic and Cultural Roots Link Two Ancient Civilizations

Peng Shituan

China and Vietnam share a multitude of similarities in language， culture and history.

Calligraphy Day at the Confucius Institute of Hanoi University in Vietnam has always attracted a large number of calligraphy enthusiasts. This is a fine opportunity for them to learn from Qin Xiaojie， the Chinese dean of the institute， as well as the other teachers there. Requests of particular calligraphy pieces are common， and the enthusiasts who attend the Calligraphy Day are fascinated with Qins technique. And although these enthusiasts enjoy Chinese proverbs， what they enjoy most are their own Chinese names written in calligraphy. When the work is completed， they like to take photos of the pieces and upload them to Zalo， a popular Vietnamese social media platform， or Facebook to share with their friends.

Vietnamese History and Confucian Culture

The history of Chinese characters in Vietnam dates back to the unification of China， including Lingnan （South of the Five Ridges）， by Emperor Yingzheng （259-210 B.C.， the First Emperor of Qin）. With the development and cultivation by successive rulers of the Han Dynasty （202 B.C.-220 A.D.）， the land of Vietnam — known as Giao Chau at the time — began its journey of civilization. At the end of the Han Dynasty， the whole country was in turmoil and the land was separated by warlords. Giao Chau， under the governance of Hou Shixie， a governor appointed by the State of Wu of the Three Kingdoms （220-265）， was at peace. As a Confucian scholar， Hou promoted the study and the spread of Confucianism. He built schools and promoted the cultural development of Vietnam. Together with other Han Dynasty scholars who were seeking shelter in Giao Chau， including Liu Xi and Xue Zong， he wrote books and compiled biographies to spread Confucianism. Confucian culture boomed in Lingnan， especially in Giao Chau， ushering in a golden age in the cultural history of Vietnam.

In ??i Vi?t s? k? toàn th? （a comprehensive chronicle of the history of Vietnam）， Vietnamese historian Ngo Si Lien observed： “The process for our country to understand poetry and books， learn rites and music and to be a state of literature all started with Lord Shi. His merits and virtues benefited not only the people of his time， but also the ensuing generations. What a great contribution！” Hou Shixie was born in Cangwu， Guangxi. He is known in Vietnam as Lord Shi. His tomb is still there， venerated by the local people for his achievements.

Confucian culture was so deeply rooted in Giao Chau that even after Vietnam began the age of independence in the 10th century， Chinese characters remained the only written language in the country for a long while. In 1010， the Ly dynasty moved its capital to Thang Long （Ascending Dragon， present-day Hanoi）. In 1070， Vietnam built the Temple of Literature and promoted education based on Chinese characters. In 1075， following the practice of Chinese dynasties， the Ly dynasty began to hold imperial examinations to select capable commoners for government positions， which further consolidated the status of Chinese characters in Vietnam.

Imprints of Chinese Characters in Vietnam

In the 13th century， either to meet the needs of writing in the local language， or under the influence of the Tangut script created by the Western Xia regime （1038-1227） in the north， a new set of characters， known as Nom script （southern characters）， appeared in Vietnam. The characters were created according to the six principles of the formation of Chinese characters. After the 14th century， the development of Nom script accelerated. The script grew so mature that it became suitable for literary works. The Ho dynasty in the 14th century and the Tay Son dynasty in the 18th century once promoted Nom script as the official script and used it in official documents. However， both dynasties were short-lived. The orthodox position of Chinese characters remained unshaken. Vietnams imperial examination was suspended with the conclusion of the last one in 1919. The official status of Chinese characters ended in 1945 with the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. But the history of 2，000 years of Chinese characters in Vietnam left indelible imprints on the land of Vietnam， as well as on the national character and national feelings of the Vietnamese.

In Vietnams capital city Hanoi， the Temple of Confucius is under government protection. The Turtle Steles with the names of successful candidates at the imperial exams are a valuable historical resource for the study of Vietnams cultural development. Temples and pavilions all over Vietnam are decorated with plaques and couplets. Many Vietnamese， regardless of whether or not they understand Chinese， feel uneasy at the sight of a temple or nunnery without a plaque or couplet in Chinese characters. The newly-built or reconstructed temples would not be considered completed without a couplet in Chinese characters， even if they are uneven and sprawling. Some couplets are not in Chinese characters but in pinyin （Chinese phonetic transcription）， but their art style makes one feel that they are Chinese characters.

In the early period of Roman Catholicism in Vietnam， some Catholic cathedrals， including the Phat Diem Stone Cathedral in Kim Son， Ninh Binh， resembled Buddhist temples， and included couplets. During the Spring Festival every year， you can always spot some “imperial scholars”， old and young， who are dressed traditionally at the Temple of Literature in Hanoi. They offer works of traditional calligraphy to their customers， which has become a Spring Festival ritual at the Temple of Literature.

The Chinese character that is most popular in Vietnam is undoubtedly the iconic “double happiness”. At wedding ceremonies， either traditional Vietnamese ones or those in the Western style， this character is a must. Shortly after the 2017 New Year， the Beijing Peoples Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries organized an ASEAN cultural tour. Vietnam was one of its destinations. In Vietnam， the delegates exhibited Chinas national intangible cultural heritage， including paper-cutting. Vietnamese attendees showed greatest interest in cutting “double happiness”.

Unique Vietnamese Names

Why are Vietnamese names so similar to Chinese names？ That can be traced back to the time when the people on the land of Vietnam began to use fixed names. According to The Surnames and Names of the Vietnamese by Vietnamese researcher Le Trong Hoa and A Study of the Origin of Vietnamese Names by Nguyen Long Cao， the Vietnamese people began to use fixed names around 200 B.C. That was closely associated with the unification of China， including Lingnan， by Emperor Yingzheng， and the incorporation of Vietnam into the Chinese cultural sphere. Under the strong influence of the Central Plains culture， the system of Vietnamese names gradually came into shape with the formation and development of the Han nationality and its system of names.

Vietnamese names generally consist of three parts — a family name， a given name and a middle name. This system of names is quite popular as a framework for most Vietnamese names. Just like in China， in Vietnam “one is not expected to change his family name or given name under any circumstances”. Thats an embodiment of a persons honesty and integrity. According to tradition， a Vietnamese person inherits his family name from his father， if not granted a different name by the emperor. His middle name indicates his generation. Only the given name is hand-picked. He can also have a courtesy name and an alias. For example， Chu Van An， a famous Vietnamese Confucian scholar and educator， was the first rector of the Imperial Academy when it was reestablished in the 14th century. His courtesy name was Linh Triet. His alias was Tieu An. This whole set of name， courtesy name and alias is an indication of upbringing and knowledge. In modern times， Vietnams traditional patriarchal relationships have declined. So has the significance of middle names. Many fathers and sons share middle names， which has resulted in confusion in the status of a generation in the family hierarchy.

Vietnam now uses an alphabetic system of writing. But most personal names have corresponding Chinese characters. Those who grew up before 1945 used to have names in Chinese characters. Therefore， its quite tricky to translate a Vietnamese name into Chinese， since the alphabetic name can be translated into different Chinese characters with the same pronunciation. Its almost as tricky as translating a Japanese name from English into Chinese — without already having the name in Chinese in ones vocabulary， it becomes a tricky double translation.

Vietnamese personal names are difficult to understand. So are Vietnamese geographic names. Whenever I travel to a Vietnamese village， I try to figure out its name in Chinese characters.