荷兰的生物经济——城市政策与试点项目评述

和马町/Martijn de Geus

荷兰的生物经济
——城市政策与试点项目评述

和马町/Martijn de Geus

有些国家致力于经济创新，意图从资源日渐枯竭、废物排放严重的线性经济向低排放、对资源无影响的循环经济模式转型，荷兰就是其中之一。这种转型的愿望主要驱动因素是资源和气候需要保护，以避免对全球生态系统造成不可逆转的损害或导致相关经济风险。与同等国家相比，荷兰的生物基政策发展起步较早，因为荷兰早在2007年就已经编制了一项国家生物经济战略来刺激这一转向，并在2012年和2013年进一步明确。一个国家性机构——荷兰企业代理机构RVO——一直负责实施国家生物经济政策，并且有若干研究中心也已经承担了这一主题，其中包括荷兰转型研究所及专门为此建立的荷兰生物基经济中心。此外，还确定或启动了若干重要部门、7个优先“首选地区”和各自的试点项目。国家生物经济战略的主要目标是实现可持续的生物质能增值、生物基材料的生产和剩余生物燃料、电能和热能的利用。本文介绍了荷兰生物经济战略的实施、考量政府政策如何适应这一过程、并推出若干关于城市和建筑规模的相关（试点）项目。

生物经济，荷兰，政策，试点项目

荷兰经常使用“生物经济”[1]这一术语，但是由于整个欧洲都已踏上资源节约型可持续经济之路，所以在荷兰只要一提到生物经济，其含义就符合欧洲关于“生物经济”的定义[2,3]。根据这一定义，生物经济的目标是一种更具创新性和低排放的经济模式，将“可持续农业和渔业、粮食安全和可再生生物资源在工业方面的可持续利用，同时确保生物多样性和环保”的要求相结合[4]。与同等国家相比，荷兰的生物基政策发展起步较早1）[3]，主要是受经济目标的推动，因为战略和环境立法2-4）[2]在当时就已经基本到位5）[3]。追求近乎全面的落实，包括建立国家政策、执行机构、全面研发方案，以及在区域和地方层面的具体实施。在本文的第一部分，我们将讨论国家生物经济政策与研发方案的建立。第二部分将以生物基三角洲地区为主要案例，讨论与城市设计有关的政策影响。第三部分将简要介绍生物建设的原则。本文将作出简短总结，并提出政策建议。

1 国家生物经济战略和政策

荷兰国家生物经济战略与这一欧洲定义紧密相关而又独具发展特色，它于2007年初步启动，并于2012年进一步发展，且于2013年正式成为更广泛的国家政府议程《绿色发展与可持续性经济》的组成部分。该《绿色发展计划》是在向议会提交的一封政府信函中提出的，其中，向生物经济转型是更广泛的政策建议框架的一部分，意思是将经济向循环模式转型（图1）。作为循环经济的一部分，生物基经济用于处理积极生产生物基材料、产品和生物能源的部分经济活动，并对其所需的生物质感兴趣[5]。

负责的部委包括：经济部（主管部委）、基础设施与环境部和外交部[6]。此外，还有荷兰生物经济中心，它受到多所大学及机构的支持，包括瓦赫宁根大学和研究所（WUR）、荷兰应用科学大学和范哈伦斯坦应用科学大学以及若干私营企业支持。

1.1 政府战略解释

据经济部长亨克·坎普及其同事基础设施与环境部国务秘书威尔玛·曼斯菲尔德介绍，《绿色发展计划》有赖于广泛而全面的合作[5]。因此，其政策纲要的主要原则是获得议会、大众社会和民营企业的支持。此外，他们还发现，荷兰现有的开放经济体系有可能促成国际合作。以这种方式，该途径可以从即将到来的绿色发展机遇中获益更多，并创造一个与其他先驱经济体交流经验的平台。与当时的其他欧盟国家相比，荷兰具备一些优势，因为支持生物经济的部分政策制度已经到位。这包括税收优惠政策，也包括作为生物经济一部分的私营和公共实体之间的合作，例如，政府已经与私营企业密切合作的可持续资源开采领域。为进一步说明《绿色发展计划》的特点，我们可以从随后的政策中确定4个基石：

（1）智能部署市场激励

这意味着产品和服务的价格应当更准确地反映面向自然环境的生产与消费的外部效果。

（2）法律法规的激励框架

（3）创新

（4）政府作为网络伙伴

这意味着面向可持续经济的转变进程中，政府扮演的角色更像一个知识机构、政府组织、自下而上的举措与企业之间进行合作的协调人。政府在这一进程中的责任是管理公众利益，维持不同利益群体间的公平性，并将地方举措与其他国际计划建立联系。

在这个总体政策框架内，加上它的4个基石，共有8个领域被确定为重大挑战和机遇。其中一个领域是生物基经济，这些领域的完整列表中包括向循环经济的转变，包括：

（1）能源：迈向可持续、可负担得起且可靠的能源供应

（2）生物基经济：实现以可持续资源（生物质）替代有限的燃料

（3）气候：向规模宏大的国家（国际）气候政策转变

（4）废物：变废物为资源

（5）建筑部门：建设节能型建筑环境

（6）食品：实现可持续农业和粮食供应

（7）移动性：朝着可持续发展的模式发展

（8）水：可持续性用水

除了作为有意识的资源和气候生产努力的一部分之外，荷兰社会经济理事会还向荷兰政府和议会提供关于社会和经济政策的重点建议，计划中也进行了援引，强调生物经济对荷兰贸易平衡以及就业机会的积极影响。以下建议概述了政府政策如何刺激生物经济的具体行动：

·专注于生物质在生物精炼技术中的最佳利用，并进一步开放和应用生物基材料

·完善知识密集型生物制造业的结算方式

·建立欧盟可持续生产和资源采购标准

·鼓励示范项目和试点工厂进行研究、创新和试验

·废除法律法规对生物基经济的限制

1.2 研究和发展

除了政策纲要外，荷兰还为生物和生物基经济的研究和发展（R&D）提供了许多类型的直接支持。根据研究[3]，已经实施了若干关于生物质生产及其转化为燃料、能源、化学品和生物材料研究的项目。在2013年，政策纲要刚刚编制完成之后，国家投资支持总额就已达1.2亿欧元。根据同样的调查，生物能源（包括生物气/厌氧分解、燃烧和气化）的学科大多受益于这种支持，而生物塑料和其他生物材料则是新兴应用领域[3]。此外，区域投资总额达15亿欧元，其中最大的份额又被分配给生物能源（高达2/3）。区域举措主要集中在与具体市场形成有关的创新周期的最后阶段，但表现出显著的区域差异性[3]4。荷兰公共研究项目在活动、工具和参与者方面有很广泛的覆盖面。资金主要集中在农业生产以及开发和实施专用转换技术。

The term bioeconomy[1]is often used in the Netherlands, but since Europe at large is setting course for a resource-efficient and sustainable economy, whenever there is a reference to bioeconomy in the Netherlands, it is used in accordance with the European definition of the term[2,3]. According to this definition, the goal of the bioeconomy is to create a more innovative and low-emissions economic model, which reconciles demands for 'sustainable agriculture and fisheries, food security, and the sustainable use of renewable biological resources for industrial purposes, while ensuring biodiversity and environmental protection'. Biobased policy development in the Netherlands started relatively early compared to peer countries1）[3], and is mostly driven by economic objectives, as strategic and environmental legislation2-4）[2]were already largely in place at the time5）[3]. A more or less full implementation is pursued, including the installation of a national policy, an implementation agency, a comprehensive research and development (R&D) program, and concrete implementation on both regional and local levels. In the first section of this paper, we discuss the installation of the National Bioeconomy Policy, together with the R&D Program. Te second part discusses the urban design–related implications of the policy, with the Biobased Delta region as its main case. The third part briefly introduces principles of biobased building. Te paper concludes with a short summary and policy recommendations.

1 从线性经济（左）到循环经济（右）的转型示意，结合了资源回收的经济链条位于中心/From linear (left) to circular economy (right); with a transitional model, ie. 'chain-economy with recycling' in the centre. （图片来源/Source: From Waste To Resource Program (VANG-program) of the government of the Netherlands）

1 National Bioeconomy Strategy and Policy

Strongly related to this European definition, but partially developed separately, is the Netherlands' National Bioeconomy Strategy, which started in 2007, was further developed in 2012, and was officially made part of a wider national government agenda on 'Green Growth and a Sustainable Economy' in 2013. This 'Green Growth Plan' was proposed in a government letter to the parliament in which the transition towards a bioeconomy was part of a larger framework of policy suggestions referring to the economic transition towards a circular model (Fig. 1). As part of a circular economy, a biobased economy is used to address that part of the economy that is active in producing biobased materials, products, and bio-energy, with interest in the biomass needed to achieve it[5].

Te responsible ministries include the Ministry of Economic Affairs (the main ministry in charge), the Ministry for Infrastructure and the Environment, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs[6]. In addition, there is the Netherlands' Centre for Biobased Economy, which is supported by several universities, including Wageningen University and Research (WUR), Inholland University of Applied Sciences, and Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences, as well as private enterprises.

1.1 Government Strategy Explained

According to the Minister of Economic Affairs, Henk Kamp, and his colleague Wilma Mansveld, state secretary for the Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment, the Green Growth Plan relies on broad, integral collaboration[5]. A key principle in their policy outline, therefore, is to gather support from parliament, general society, and private enterprises. In addition, they identify the existing open economy in the Netherlands as creating the possibility of enabling an international approach. Such an approach could benefit more broadly from upcoming opportunities for green growth, and create a platform for the exchange of experiences with other pioneering economies. Compared to other EU countries at the time this strategy was developed, the Netherlands had some advantages, since parts of a policy system supporting the bioeconomy were already in place. These included tax incentives as well as collaboration between private and public entities as part of the bioeconomy – for example, in the area of sustainable extraction of resources, in which the government had already been working closely with private enterprises. To further specify the characteristics of the Green Growth Plan, we can identify four cornerstones of the subsequent government policy:

(1) Smart deployment of market stimuli

Meaning that prices of products and services should more accurately reflect the external effects that producing and consumption has toward the natural environment.

(2) Stimulating framework of laws and regulations

(3) Innovation

(4) Te government as network partner

This means that in the transition process towards a more sustainable economy, the government will act more as a facilitator of collaboration between knowledge institutes, government organizations, bottom-up initiatives and companies. The government's responsibility in this process is to govern the public interest, to maintain a fair balance between the interests of the other parties, and to connect local initiatives with other international plans.

2 生物基三角洲地理位置示意，包含生物基走廊的3个主要区域：绿色化学园区（专注于化学）、Nieuw Prinsenland（生物质处理）和穆尔代克（港口区）/Location of BioBased Delta, with three main sectors of the bio based corridor:the Green Chemistry Campus (chemistry), Nieuw Prinsenland(treatment of biomass) and Moerdijk (port area).（图片来源/ Source: http://www.greenchemistrycampus.com/en/campus/ location/）

3 泰尔讷普生物园/Biopark Terneuzen

2 城市规划与生物经济

作为对生物基经济和相关政策对荷兰实际城市规划和城市设计实施的影响的介绍，本节列举了荷兰西南地区的两类相关实例。第一个例子是自上而下式举措，紧跟在本文第一部分关于政府举措的讨论之后，与（政府）机构、私营企业和区域利益相关者合作，共建“生物基三角洲”。第二个例子是相同三角洲地区的自下而上式自主研发提案，由荷兰政府科研经费赞助的马可·弗穆伦建筑工作室领导进行合作研究。

2.1 生物基三角洲

第一个例子是将区域间自上而下式的举措组合在一起，视为“生物基三角洲”（图2）。该三角洲包括泽兰省、南荷兰省和布拉班特省，都位于西南河三角洲地区，那里的企业家、知识机构和政府正在共同致力于生物基经济。该地区拥有大型农业、园艺和化工部门，地理位置优越（沿安特卫普—鹿特丹中轴线），且具有建设各种深海港口的空间。在“生物基三角洲”计划中，这些机会共同为跨国公司、中小型企业（SME领域）、知识机构和政府机构之间的合作提供了一个契机。各方以“生物基三角洲”的名义联合在一起，共同致力于生物基经济的3个主要方面：

（1）绿色原材料

研究和开发代替或补充化石燃料的替代原料。该主题包括4个主要的“材料方案”，分别关注藻类和海藻、农产品、天然成分，以及天然纤维。

（2）绿色建筑砌块

这些建筑砌块包括各种替代基础材料，以代替目前由化学芳烃苯、甲苯、二甲苯和苯酚制成的合成材料、化学品和油漆、胶等涂料。这些生物基替代品是由绿色原料制成的。该部分还研究如何更有效地利用农业的残余液体（例如，在甜菜生产周期中产生的汁液）。

（3）可持续加工

加工业本身可以通过对各种生产周期和相关加工的了解得以整合改进。清洁技术和绿色原材料及可持续能源的开发和（大规模）利用，除了更好地利用CO2、水和热等剩余流量外，在实现更加可持续的工业进程中也起着重要作用。

生物基三角洲本身包括3个主要的区域集群，与一个特别重点，共同形成一体化生物基走廊，即绿色化学园区（专注于化学）、普林森兰德新区（生物质处理）和穆尔代克（港口区）。在生物基三角洲内，已经确定了几个优先位置，标记为“优选位置”，标志着该地区绿色创新和创业企业家的存在。优选位置目前约有9处，但将继续扩大。这里列出了3个代表性的优选位置集群：

·欧洲生物基地与泰尔讷普生物园

这是通过培训流程操作员使用模拟器组织面向年轻人的展览以及公司之间的网络活动来实现的。泰尔讷普生物园（图3）刺激并促进位于此处的公司之间的协同增效作用。该生物园参与了诸如WarmCO2等项目，将工业过程中的剩余热量和CO2提供给温室养殖部门。该生物园还拥有生物柴油和生物质能生产基地。

·生物处理试点设施（代尔夫特）

在这个开放的试点设施中，公司、知识机构和联盟可以将其生物技术进程从实验室扩大到工业生产规模。多种产品通过发酵技术实现转化，包括乙醇、复合生物分子和用于生物塑料的单体等小分子。

·绿色化学园区

绿色化学园区促进了农业与化学交界生物基经济的发展。该园区提供优质的设施和最先进的商业发展计划，重点是生物塑料、化学品和涂料。

除了顶级位置外，生物基三角洲内还有几个较小的区域性举措，围绕生物经济中的特定生产周期展开。

Inside this overall policy framework, with its four cornerstones, a total of eight domains have been identified, each presenting important challenges and opportunities. One of these domains is the biobased economy. The full list of domains that comprise the change toward a circular economy include:

(1) Energy: towards a sustainable, affordable and reliable energy supply

(2) Biobased economy: towards a replacement of finite fuels with sustainable resources (biomass)

(3) Climate: towards an ambitious (inter) national climate policy

(4) Waste: from waste to resource

(5) Building sector: towards an energy-efficient built environment

(6) Food: towards a sustainable agriculture and food supply

(7) Mobility: toward sustainable modes of transport

(8) Water: sustainably working with water

In addition to being part of a conscious effort in resource and climate production, the Social and Economic Council of the Netherlands, which advises the Dutch government and parliament on key points of social and economic policy, is also quoted in the plan underlining the positive effects that the focus on the bioeconomy will have on the Dutch trade balance, and on employment opportunities. Actions on how government policy can stimulate specific aspects of the bioeconomy are outlined in the following recommendations:

·Focus on the optimal use of biomass for biorefinery techniques and further developing and applying biobased materials.

·Improve the settlement terms for the knowledge-intensive, biobased manufacturing industry.

·Establish EU-level criteria for the sustainable production and sourcing of resources.

·Stimulate research, innovation, and experiments for demonstration projects and pilot factories.

·Abolish the limitations for a biobased economy in laws and regulations.

1.2 Research and Development

In addition to the policy outlines, the Netherlands is also providing many types of direct support to R&D of the biobased and bioeconomy. According to research by Langeveld[3], several programs have been implemented to research biomass production and its conversion into fuels, energy, chemicals, and biomaterials. As early as 2013, just after compiling the policy outlines, national investment support totalled up to €120 million. According to the same survey, the discipline of bio energy (which includes biogas/anaerobic digestion, combustion, and gasification) is profiting most from this support, while bio plastics and other biomaterials are emerging application fields[3]. In addition, regional investments amounted to a total of €1.5 billion, with the largest share again being allocated to bioenergy (up to two thirds). Regional initiatives mostly focus on the final stage of the innovation cycle, relating to specific market formation, but showing considerable regional differentiation[3]4. Dutch public research programs are broadly oriented in terms of activities, instruments, and participants. Funding is strongly focused on agricultural production and the development and implementation of dedicated conversion technologies.

2 Urban Planning and the Bioeconomy

As an introduction to the effects of the biobased economy and related policies on actual urban planning and urban design implementations in the Netherlands, this section covers two types of related examples, both focused on the same southwestern region in the Netherlands. Te first example is a topdown initiative, directly following the government initiative discussed in the first part of this paper, with a partnership among (government) institutes, private enterprises, and regional stakeholders, working together on the 'Biobased Delta'. Te second example is a bottom-up, self-initiated research proposal for the same delta region, by a research collaborative lead by architecture studio Marco Vermeulen and sponsored by a Dutch government research grant.

2.1 Biobased Delta

The first example considers an interregional, top-down initiative, grouped together under the name 'Biobased Delta' (Fig. 2). This delta consists of the provinces of Zeeland, Zuid-Holland, and Brabant, all located in the southwestern river delta area, where entrepreneurs, knowledge institutes, and governments are working together towards a biobased economy. Te region has large agriculture, horticulture, and chemical sectors, an advantageous geographic location (along the Antwerp-Rotterdam axis), and room for various deep sea ports. In the Biobased Delta initiative, these opportunities together provide a setting for collaboration between multinationals, small-and medium-sized enterprises (the SME sector), knowledge institutions, and government agencies. These various parties are united under the name Biobased Delta, and together focus on three primary aspects of the biobased economy:

(1) Green raw materials

This includes researching and developing alternative raw materials to replace or supplement fossil fuels. This theme comprises four main material programs, focused on algae and seaweed, agricultural produce, natural ingredients, and natural fibres, respectively.

(2) Green building blocks

These building blocks include various alternative base materials to replace types of synthetic materials, chemicals, and coatings, like paint and glue, which are currently made from the chemical aromatics benzene, toluene, xylene, and phenol. These biobased alternatives are instead made from green raw materials. This sector also researches how fibres from agricultural residual flows can be utilized more effectively (e.g. in the sugar beet production cycle).

(3) Sustainable processes

The process industry itself could advance through understanding the various production cycles and related processes. Clean technology and the development and (large-scale) use of green raw materials and sustainable energy could then, in addition to better utilising residual flows like CO2, water, and heat, play an important role in achieving more sustainable industry processes.

Te Biobased Delta itself comprises three main regional clusters with a specific focus, that together form an integral biobased corridor; that is, the Green Chemistry Campus (focused on chemistry), Nieuw Prinsenland (treatment of biomass), and Moerdijk (the port area). Inside the Biobased Delta, several preferential locations, labelled as 'top locations', have been identified to mark the presence of green innovations and pioneering entrepreneurs in that specific area. Three representative top location clusters are listed below:

·Bio Base Europe and Biopark Terneuzen

The Bio Base Europe Training Centre in Terneuzen (Fig. 3) is an innovative educational centre that promotes the development of the biobased economy. Its activities include training process operators using simulators, organizing an exhibition for young people, and facilitating networking activities between companies. Biopark Terneuzen stimulates and facilitates synergy between companies in the area. The Biopark is involved in, for example, WarmCO2, which supplies residual heat and CO2from industrial processes to the greenhouse farming sector. The Biopark also houses production locations for biodiesel and biomass.

4 生物基骨干，生物基经济一体化/Biobased backbone; bio based economic integration（图片来源/Source: http:// marcovermeulen.eu/projecten/se/142/biobasedbackbone/ (under creative common license)）

2.2 生物基骨干

第二个城市规划示例是针对同一个三角洲地区的自下而上式自主设计方案（图4），一项由马可·弗穆伦建筑工作室主导的合作研究，参与者包括荷兰转型研究所、开发商BLOC公司和“绿色经济知识经纪人”坚实基础机构，并由荷兰创业产业基金提供的荷兰政府科研经费资助。该提案最初是对三角洲地区再生改造的调查，因为使该地区成为世界上最繁荣区域的原始条件完全以化石能源为基础，这在当时已不再适于与即将崛起的亚洲和南美市场对抗。因此，一度繁荣的地区，就业下降，地方生态系统也因长期过度抑制和采伐而遭受重创；导致当地社区崩溃，风景也再不似往日那般美丽。

事实上，这项研究利用三角洲地区作为一个普遍问题的具体焦点。这个普遍问题考虑的是当代经济模式对当地环境、气候和对化石燃料严重依赖的负面影响。同时，选择三角洲地区是为了说明特定地区如何利用其内在潜力作为向生物经济转型的开始。西南三角洲地区有很多公司，特别是农业、园艺和化学行业的公司。因此，由于可提供生物资源（通过农业层面），连同强大的化学工业和这些行业之间的良好协作，该提案声称这是循环经济转型的良好起点。该团队考虑了石油化工业如何与城市供热相结合，从而可以利用工业剩余热量为住宅供热。此外，生物基循环原则可为当地农民提供替代性的收入来源，他们种植的作物不再仅仅是粮食，而且也是生物质资源的一部分。这些有机资源可以成为服装、制药和其他产品生产中所需石油的可持续性替代品。该提案旨在将每个“农民或市民、生物基三角洲中的每个人”转变成生物质供应商[7]。该提案还声称，三角洲内各部门和不同利益相关者之间的合作和互动将为所有资源和流动创造一个“相互依存”或“智能化”网络，从而形成一个更为清洁的环境，现有的油气管道可以在其中“转换为绿色组分的运输”。设计人员称，“生物基骨干”已出现，因此，生物质和其他资源进行交换的计划的题目，正在区域范围内成长为“强大、有效和可持续的代谢体系”。由于该计划提出了一个相互依存的体系，农业、景观和化工行业可以在这个体系中更好地与环境融合，景观本身也可以转变，从而实现“技术与自然之间的可持续平衡，而且生活在三角洲地区的人民的生活质量更高”[7]。

3 生物基建筑

除了政策和规划方面，本节还考虑了生物基建筑的建设。利希滕贝格教授指出，建筑业在全球物质消费中占40%以上[8]，所以，他的问题是建筑行业如何推动向生物基经济的转型。为了回答这个问题，我们应该首先了解，生物基建筑本身主要集中在两个方面。首先，它以各种形式关注能源（能源消耗、生产、能源效率等），其次涉及材料。据利希滕贝格教授称，我们“迟早会彻底解决能源问题”，但是他最关注的方面是材料和资源在实际建筑中的可持续利用。注重产品链分析的整体化方法似乎是一个合乎逻辑的答案，让建筑业积极地将生物材料用于新建筑结构。这种方法是更普遍化的可持续建设战略的补充，包括使用较少的材料进行建设、通过更有效的规划提高空间利用率从而降低新建筑需求、建造适应性强的灵活性建筑、建筑垃圾的循环利用等。关于提出的生产链方法，我们从确定几个可以利用生物质基（原料）资源替代化石燃料和产品的生产链开始。这些替代资源可以分为两大类[8]：

·有目的培育的主要产品

这些被称为“基本资源”，包括玉米、大豆、木材、麻、藻类和草等作物。

·副产品和废品

这些产品可以从景观管理、林业和农业过程中产生，可以包括路边草、修剪下来的枝叶、酿酒粕、粪便、有机废物和污水污泥。

因此，生物基建筑可以被定义为一种符合“从哪里来，回哪里去”的生物性原则的施工方法，即在建筑过程中使用的材料最终（可以）再次返回到自然[8]。荷兰和国外已经有若干实例证明可以在建筑中使用这些生物基材料之一替代某些“传统制造”的材料。例如：

·在外墙使用禾杆（比利时胡斯建筑事务所在Refuge II 使用）或者，

·在屋顶使用禾杆（瑞典Wingårdhs建筑事务所的一个访客中心曾使用）；

·使用夯土墙（例如，马丁·劳奇在他奥地利自宅中的使用）；

·室内装饰采用全木结构（Onix建筑师在荷兰的一座私人住宅中使用）或者，

·使用回收的有机织物纤维作为绿植墙的基础，覆盖在建筑物的整个外观、完整木结构的顶部、荷兰代尔夫特理工学院的BlackBox Stylos展览馆内的底层（和马町与曼纳尔兹设计，图5）。

4 结论和建议

总之，生物基经济首先可以被认为是一个极具发展前景的更可持续性经济，也是在向循环经济模式转型的同时使当地人民、经济和环境受益的手段。

考虑到进一步发展的建议，在过去5～10年中许多国家就已经开始实施生物和生物基经济的国家战略[3]，但有些国家的实施更进一步。理想情况下，生物经济应该是一个不产生任何浪费的有效经济体系，不再完全依赖以化石为基础的原料，其运行主要依靠生物质（植物基原材料等，如树木、其他植被和藻类，以及动物材料，如内脏和烹饪脂肪等）。关于荷兰的情况，从本文概述可以看出，生物基经济的各个方面，如政策、大规模区域性自上而下式计划、自下而上式研发和小规模的建设工作，的确在共同努力，为进一步推进这一转型创造了鼓舞人心的气氛。

然而，为了全面发展到生物基经济，第一个挑战似乎是将生物经济概念的核心——主要能源载体向生物质转型——作为政策的必要条件。由于在过去几年中，政治辩论已强调了生物燃料的潜在负面影响[9]11，治理机构似乎“看不到我们可以更有效地利用生物质”。换言之，它已经“看不到”创建一个高效、综合、循环的经济模式以便首先从生物质中获得最具经济价值的组成部分的首要战略。这一主要战略可以被称为“最佳生物能增值”，可以取代致使初级可再生资源应用不利的政府政策，例如从农业原料生产生物燃料，可以将其首先用于食品，然后再将剩余原料用于低价值应用，如能源。

因此，除了主要关注相对低产能量替代品的现有政策制度之外，“最佳生物质增值”似乎提供了巨大的经济和生态机会。它可能涉及广泛的社会行动者，将每个人都变成“生物质供应商”，使每个人都成为循环经济的一部分，与当地生态环境息息相关。综上所述， “只有具有生态可持续性、符合社会公正且广受大众支持的生态经济才有真正的未来”[3]。

·Bioprocess Pilot Facility (Delft)

In this open pilot facility, companies, knowledge institutes, and consortia can scale up their biotechnological processes from the laboratory to industrial production. A wide variety of products are converted using fermentation techniques, including ethanol, complex biomolecules, and small molecules like monomers for bioplastics.

·Green Chemistry Campus

The Green Chemistry Campus accelerates the biobased economy on the interface between agriculture and chemistry. The campus offers excellent facilities and state-of-the-art business development programs with a focus on bio plastics, chemicals, and coatings.

In addition to the top locations, there are several smaller regional initiatives inside the Biobased Delta that focus on a specific production cycle inside the bioeconomy.

2.2 Biobased Backbone

The second urban planning example is a bottom-up, self-initiated design proposal for the same delta region, by a research collaborative lead by architecture studio Marco Vermeulen, which also includes the Dutch Research Institute for Transitions, developer BLOC, and 'green economy knowledge brokers' The Solid Grounds, funded by a Dutch government research grant provided by the Creative Industries Fund NL (Fig. 4). Te proposal started as an inquiry into regenerating the delta region, since the original conditions for making the region into one of the most prosperous in the world were fully fossil economy–based and no longer viable against upcoming markets in Asia and South America. Terefore, in a once-prosperous region, employment was declining and local eco-systems were suffering as part of long-term control and exploitation, resulting in collapsing local communities and the loss of oncebeautiful landscapes.

In fact, the research utilises the delta region as a specific focus for a general problem. The general problem considers the negative impact of the contemporary economic model on the local environment, climate, and heavy dependency on fossil fuels. At the same time, the delta region was chosen to show how a specific region can utilise its inherent potential as a start to transitioning into a biobased economy. The southwestern delta region is abundant with companies in the agriculture, horticulture, and chemistry sectors. Thus, because of the availability of biological resources (through the agricultural sector), together with a strong chemical industry and good collaboration between these sectors, the proposal claims this is a good starting point for the transition to a circular economy. Te team considers, for instance, how the petro-chemical industry could be combined with city heating, so that residual industrial heat could be used to heat houses. In addition, the biobased circular principle could provide an alternative source of income for local farmers, who, instead of growing crops for food, could consider their crops part of biomass resources. For instance, these organic resources could be a sustainable alternative for oil in the production of clothing, medicine, and other products. The proposal aims to transform every 'farmer or citizen, everybody in the Biobased Delta' into a supplier of biomass[7]. The proposal also claims that the cooperation and interaction between sectors and stakeholders in the delta will create an 'interdependent or 'smart' grid for all resources and flows', resulting in a cleaner environment, in which existing oil and gas pipelines could be 'converted for transportation of green components'. The designers claim that a 'biobased backbone' emerges, hence the title of the plan, where biomass and other resources are being exchanged, growing into a 'robust, efficient and sustainable metabolic system on a regional scale'. And since the plan proposes an interdependent system in which the agricultural, landscape, and chemical industries are better integrated with the environment, the landscape itself could also transform, resulting in 'a sustainable balance between technology and nature, and a better living quality for the people living in the cities and towns of the delta area'[7].

5 BlackBox Stylos展馆，代尔夫特理工，荷兰，与周围环境的对比/BlackBox Stylos Pavilion, TU Delft, the Netherlands, comparison with surrounding context（图片来源/Source: 作者提供/Image by author）

3 Biobased Building

In addition to policy and planning, this section considers the construction of biobased buildings, since, according to Professor Lichtenberg, the construction sector accounts for over 40% of global material consumption[8]; as such, he asks how the construction industry can contribute to the transition to a biobased economy. In order to answer this question, we should first understand that biobased building itself consists largely of two aspects. Firstly, it concerns energy, in a variety of forms (consumption, production, efficiency, etc.). Secondly, it concerns materials. According to Professor Lichtenberg, we will 'definitely solve the energy aspects sooner or later', but he is mostly concerned about the sustainable use of materials and resources in the actual construction of buildings. An integral approach that is focused on production chain analysis seems to be a logical answer, in which the construction industry actively looks to utilise biobased materials in the building of new structures. This approach is in addition to more general sustainable building strategies that include using fewer materials, improving spatial efficiency with more efficient programming and thus requiring fewer new buildings, the construction of adaptable and flexible buildings, recycling of construction waste, and so on. Regarding the proposed production chain approach, we can start to identify several chains in which biomass based (raw) resources can be utilized to substitute fossil fuel–based materials and products. These alternative resources can be divided into two main categories[8]:

·Purposefully cultivated main products

These are so called 'primary resources', which include crops such as corn, soy, wood, hemp, algae, and weeds.

·By-and waste products

Tese can originate from processes in landscape management, forestry, and agriculture, and can include roadside grasses, prunings, brewers' grains, manure, organic waste, and sewage sludge.

Biobased building can thus be defined as a construction method in which the materials used in the process of building, eventually (could) return to nature again[8], according to the biotic principles of the cradle-to-cradle philosophy. There are already several built examples that have substituted certain traditionally manufactured materials with one of these biobased materials, both in the Netherlands and abroad. Examples include:

·the use of straw in exterior walls (Refuge II by Goes Architecten, Belgium)

·the use of straw in roofs (in a visitor centre by Wingårdhs architects in Sweden)

·the use of earthen walls (e.g. by Martin Rauch, in his house in Austria)

·a full house interior in wood (by Onix architects in a private house, the Netherlands), and

·the use of recycled, organic clothing fabric as a base for a living plant wall that covers the entire exterior of the building, on top of a full wooden structure in the BlackBox Stylos pavilion for TU Delft, the Netherlands (by De Geus and Mannaerts. Fig. 5).

4 Conclusion and Recommendations

First of all, the biobased economy can be considered a highly promising aspect of a more sustainable economy, and a means by which to transition to a circular economic model, while simultaneously benefiting the local population, economy, and environment.

Considering recommendations for further development, according to Langeveld, many countries in the past five to ten years have started to implement national strategies for the bio and biobased economy, but some countries are further along in their implementation[3]. Ideally, the bioeconomy should be an efficient economic system that produces no waste and no longer relies entirely on fossil-based feedstock, but instead runs mainly on biomass (i.e. plant-based raw materials such as trees, other vegetation and algae, and animal material such as offal and cooking fat). As for the situation in the Netherlands, from the overview in this paper, it can be observed that various aspects of the biobased economy – policy; large-scale, regional, top-down plans; bottom-up research and development; and smaller-scale building works – indeed seem to work together in creating a stimulating climate for further advancing this transition.

However, to fully progress into a biobased economy, the first challenge seems to be to make the core of the bio-economic concept – the transition towards biomass as the primary energy carrier – a policy imperative. Since, in past years, the political debate has emphasized the potential negative effects of biofuels[9]11, it seems the governing bodies have 'lost sight of the possibility that we can make more efficient use of biomass'. In other words, they have lost sight of the primary strategy of creating an efficient, integrated, circular economic model that derives the most economically valuable components from the biomass first. This primary strategy could be titled 'optimal biomass valorization' and could replace government policies that promote less optimal applications of primary renewable resources, such as creating biofuels from agricultural feedstock that could have also been used for food (first), and then using what remains for lower-value applications, such as energy.

Thus, in addition to existing systems of policy that focus largely on relatively lowyielding energy replacements, optimal biomass valorization appears to offer enormous economic and ecological opportunities. It could involve a wide range of social actors, turning everybody into 'a supplier of biomass', making everybody part of the circular economy, linked to their local ecological environment. To conclude, 'the bio-economy only really has a future if it is ecologically sustainable, socially just, and publicly supported'[3].

注释/Notes

1）基于参考文献[3]：“早期生物经济政策战略已经被许多国家发表，如丹麦（2009、2012）、德国（2010、2014）、法国（2012）、美国（2012）、瑞典（2012）和南非（2013）”，而荷兰开始于2007年/According to[3]: 'Early bioeconomy policy strategies have been published by a number of countries including Denmark (2009, 2012), Germany (2010, 2014), France (2012), the USA (2012), Sweden (2012) and South Africa (2013)' , compared to the Netherlands, that started in 2007.

2）例如，国家可再生能源行动计划的一部分/For instance, as part of the National Renewable Energy Action Plan

3）Hoofdlijnennotitie Biobased Economy （2012）是生物基经济中的一个中长期愿景和战略政策/ Hoofdlijnennotitie Biobased Economy (2012), is a midand long term vision and strategy for the biobased economy.

4）共同致力于经济增长和环境改善，且对生物经济持续支持/Jointly addresses economic growth and environmental improvement, and continued support for the Bioeconomy. 5）与同等国家相比，大多数情况下经济驱动力在生物经济政策的发展中都占居主导地位，战略（食品安全）和环境（气候变化，废弃物减排）等方向的驱动是次要原因，参见参考文献[3]/In fact, also when comparing to these peer-countries, in most cases, economic drivers are dominant reason for the development of a bioeconomy policy; strategic(food security, energy independency) and environmental (climate change, waste reduction)drivers are given a lower priority. See[3].

/References

[1] German Bioeconomy Council, 2014.

[2] 'Green growth' (kamerbrief-groene-groei-vooreen-sterke-duurzameeconomie.pdf' [2017-03-05] http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/bestanden/documentenenpublicaties/kamerstukken/2013/03/28/kamerbriefgroene-groei-voor-eensterke-duurzame-economie/ kamerbrief-groene-groei-voor-een-sterkeduurzameeconomie.pdf.

[3] Langeveld, JWA. et al., Te Biobased Economy and the Bioeconomy in the Netherlands, 2016, Biomass Research Wageningen.

[4] European Commission, Innovating for Sustainable Growth: A Bioeconomy for Europe, Brussels, 2012. [2017-03-05] http://bookshop.europa.eu/en/ innovating-for-sustainable-growth-pbKI3212262/.

[5] Kamp, H., and Mansveld, W., Kamerbrief groene groei voor een sterke duurzame economie, Rijksoverheid, 2013.

[6] Burns, C., Bioeconomy Factsheet of the Netherlands, 2015, Bio Base NWE.

[7] Vermeulen, et al. Biobased Backbone (2015) [2017-03-05] http://marcovermeulen.eu/projecten/se/142/ biobasedbackbone.

[8] Böttger, W., Bio Based Bouwen, 2016, Centre of Expertise Bio Based Economy.

[9] Asveld L., R. van Est & D. Stemerding (Eds), Getting to the core of the bio-economy: A perspective on the sustainable promise of biomass. Te Hague: Rathenau Instituut, 2011.

[10] National Bioeconomy Profile the Netherlands. [2017-03-05] https://biobs.jrc.ec.europa.eu/sites/ default/files/generated/files/country/National%20 Bioeconomy%20Profile%202014%20The%20 Netherlands_0.pdf .

Bioeconomy in the Netherlands: A Review on Urban Policy and Pilot Projects

The Netherlands is one of the countries that aims to innovate its economy from a resource-depleting, high-emission linear economy to a low-emission, resourceneutral circular model. This desire for change is largely driven by a need for resource and climate protection, in order to avoid irreversible damage to global ecosystems and related economic risks. Biobased policy development in the Netherlands started relatively early compared to peer countries, as the Dutch government compiled a national Bioeconomy strategy to stimulate this transition in 2007, and further defined it in 2012 and 2013. A national agency, the RVO (the Netherlands Enterprise Agency), has been tasked with implementing national Bioeconomy policies, and several research centres have taken on this topic, including the Dutch Research Institute for Transitions, and the Netherlands' Centre of Expertise Biobased Economy, established specifically for this purpose. In addition, several key sectors, seven priority 'top locations', and respective pilot projects have been identified or initiated. Te key objectives in the National Bioeconomy Strategy are sustainable biomass valorization, the production of biobased materials, and the use of residues for biofuels, electricity, and heat. Tis paper focuses on the implementation of bio economic strategy in the Netherlands, considers how government policies accommodated this process, and introduces several relevant (pilot) projects on the urban and architectural scale.

bioeconomy, the Netherlands, policy, pilot projects

清华大学

2017-03-09