制图技术在风景园林专业和高等教育中的发展与现状

著：（美）阿什利·斯蒂芬斯 译：许芗斌 尚叶青 校：庄陶之

1 制图技术在风景园林学科中的演变

许多设计领域在项目之初常用口头沟通，并辅以传统手绘和渲染方法表达设计理念。而在设计过程中，人们则采用多元化的图像表达方式来表述方案，包括简单的概念图表达、正式的说明性平面图和技术性的工程文件。尽管手绘制图的标准已经存续了几十年，但更先进的计算机绘图软件正在持续影响风景园林设计的全过程，甚至呈现出取代传统手绘表达的大趋势。

尽管计算机辅助绘图（CAD）在20世纪60年代已经出现，但直到20世纪80年代才被应用到景观设计行业中[1]。多数景观设计公司称，直至90年代中期CAD统一建筑行业的制图规范标准后[2]，他们才开始用计算机的文字处理和电子表格程序来进行企业管理。随着Autodesk公司推出的 AutoCAD软件的更新以及计算机显卡性能的提升，一小部分专家意识到十余年后制图软件将产生的巨大影响[3]。

虽然在人们的早期印象里，CAD仅与施工图绘制有关， 但AutoCAD仍为设计行业带来了便捷与精确。由于其在提升工作效率中的显著作用，CAD开始在设计过程中替代其他传统的制图方法。用科比·洛卡德（2000年）的话来说，计算机制图从此改写了设计制图发展的历史，其中也不可避免地存在一些问题[4]。学术界也意识到，为满足计算机绘图方面的基本需求，相应的教学课程也需要调整[1]。但由于课程时间所限，教学方也未能很好地解决计算机制图教学与传统的手绘技能培养在课时安排上的冲突，甚至在一些设计学院，计算机制图课已经取代了颇具价值的手绘课。

2 计算机制图的应用

“从前，专业设计人士用非常简陋的工具—铅笔、钢笔来绘制平面，过程极为辛苦，但倘若做得好，结果将令人惊叹。直到AutoCAD的出现，一切都变了……”

——尼克·贝蒂，乔治亚大学2006级研究生

由于意识到开设一门符合专业需求的实用系列课程的重要程度，我于20世纪90年代末开始了景观专业手绘和计算机制图2门课程的教学实践。为确定这门课的核心内容，我分别在2004年、2006年、2007年、2009年和2012年中进行了一系列调查，研究该时期制图技术的发展及其应用。这段时间是制图技术时代变迁的开始，多种制图软件涌现出来，其中包含AutoCAD、Photoshop和SketchUp这3种技术领先的软件。为满足用人单位的需求，学校将这3种软件设置为基础教学课程[5]。

2.1 AutoCAD

AutoCAD最初由建筑师在20世纪60年代使用，逐渐替换了手绘时期所制定的景观行业施工图制图标准，最终取代了手绘的底图、种植平面图以及其他典型的专业构造图。AutoCAD于1982年正式发布，在4年多的时间内成为应用最广泛的计算机辅助绘图软件，工作中熟练掌握AutoCAD的学生也受到广泛欢迎。但AutoCAD的原始版本也有局限性：如累赘的3D平台，在设计可视化、渲染和说明符号方面也存在一些缺陷。

2.2 Adobe Photoshop

20世纪90年代初期，Adobe Photoshop从单纯的图像展示开始，逐步树立了景观行业图像渲染处理和数字图像处理的标准，并逐渐使设计可视化。随着扫描仪与计算机内存能力的提升，设计人员可以轻松导入手绘稿和AutoCAD图稿进行后期处理，渲染出丰富多彩且富含笔触变化的质感。数字处理方式可以实现图像的快速修改，既有助于推进设计决策，也能将设计想法及时传达给客户。

2.3 SketchUp

在21世纪的头十年， Sketch Up软件的出现迅速弥补了项目可视化和产品包装的不足，被誉为“人人可操作的3D软件”。Sketch Up上手容易且使用免费，因而被建筑师和家具设计师们广泛使用。虽然在Sketch Up中难以获得平滑弯曲的边缘，但是景观设计师却找到了使用Sketch Up快速生成动画短片、导出建筑透视线框图和模拟建成环境的快捷途径，进而辅助设计可视化与设计决策工作的进行。

虽然这些领先的技术在各种设计相关专业中已经得到普遍应用，但与景观专业特有的表现需求相比，这些技术在设计表达方面仍有一些缺陷。

3 近期对景观行业内制图软件使用情况及数字通信对其影响的研究

最近，研究生罗德尼·本顿和从业者丹尼尔·塔尔于2014年通过美国风景园林师协会ASLA进行了一项调查。该调查咨询了许多公司关于制图软件和技术的使用情况。结果表明，风景园林专业与制图技术的发展和应用存在很有趣的联系。

“过去20年的新技术真正彻底地改变了我的工作方式，但我有时也认为，软件的微小进步正在吞噬着更多适应新变化所必需的时间, 那些耗费在软件上的时间和精力似乎对提升生产效率并未产生太大的作用。”

——调查反馈

3.1 调查结果

3.1.1 公司规模与人员构成

调查通过Survey Monkey网络调查公司发送到3 880个ASLA注册公司，其中729个公司给予了回复。回复的公司中，超过半数（55%）拥有员工人数在2～49名之间，其余的公司则有50名以上的员工，而这之中独资企业占到27%。办公人数统计告诉了我们每个公司的人员构成，由景观设计师以及规划师、建筑师或土木工程师混合组成的公司通常因为更多样的专业人员组合拥有更全面的制图技术。729个公司中有400个以上只有景观设计师，大约有225个公司雇用了多个专业的员工，其余的公司则由景观设计师、规划师、建筑师和工程师组成。

3.1.2 硬件

调查结果显示，Macintosh产品（苹果公司于1984年推出的一种系列微机）设计精巧、配置彩色显示器，拥有着强大的处理技术和触屏优势。在Macintosh产品占主导地位的时代，75%的公司仍然使用PC计算机，另外15%的公司同时使用PC和MAC计算机。这与景观行业使用的一些特定的软件有关，如AutoCAD以前只适用于PC计算机。后来考虑到MAC计算机使用率的增加，Autodesk明智地推出了MAC版本，但其仍然缺乏完整的PC版功能。

3.1.3 制图方式

别把那个卷笔刀扔掉。

“我看过的大部分SketchUp模型和CAD渲染图都是废物。他们都不是手工渲染的。你要么学习手绘，要么离开这个行业。”

——调查反馈

随着时间推移和新软件的出现，设计者在使用手绘和电脑绘图之间摇摆不定。对于教育者来说，平衡课程教学和软件技能培训之间的时间分配是一个不断思讨的过程；对于专业人士来说，哪种方式效率最高、沟通最方便才最重要。从前述针对ASLA的调查结果来看，600多家公司表示他们在设计概念的初步表达时还在采用手绘方式。虽然计算机在项目过程中确实能起到把控作用，但手绘方式在快速构思、设计思考和前期沟通上仍有不可替代的作用。

“我认为现在对电脑渲染和建模的关注太多了，而这并不能取代手绘的能力。另外，我发现那些只会3D建模的学生与只会手绘的学生之间是有差别的，那些擅长手绘的人似乎对空间形态和艺术细节有着更深入的了解。虽然3D建模软件价值不可忽视，但它终究只是一个工具。”

——调查反馈

3.1.4 软件

调查显示多种软件在实际中得到应用。其中，微软的MS Office办公软件因其功能多样成为应用最为广泛的软件。在制图方面，AutoCAD仍然保持了领先地位，Sketch Up、Photoshop则分别占据了第二、第三的位置。

“我们发现市场上没有一个软件真正适合我们所做的景观设计或城市设计工作，总是需要多个软件来实现预期效果。但幸运的是，许多软件已经变得更为实用，并在数据导入与导出方面更具交互性，希望这个趋势会持续下去”。

——调查反馈

3.2 技术问题

调查结果表明，目前的问题普遍存在于软件升级的成本、学习新技巧所需的时间和资源以及其他技术问题（如硬件需求和文件大小限制）。

“我们不断评估和升级我们的技术，但只有深思熟虑后才能做出改变。客户总是盯着本质内容，我们必须在精湛的技术与保持价格竞争力方面保持平衡。”

——调查反馈

排名前三的软件收到的投诉意见不尽相同，但它们确实有一个共同点：它们都不是为景观设计师开发的。

“很希望看到设计软件变得更符合景观设计师的需求，但这话我已经说了10年。”

——调查反馈

调查中许多受访者表达了对于Autodesk公司忽视本专业的需求和近期很多升级所需费用过高的不满；关于Photoshop的投诉则包括他们必须购买完整的Creative Suite和Cloud软件包，而其中许多应用程序是多余的；Sketch Up则以生成大型文件和使电脑卡顿而闻名。这几家公司业务发展很快，其价格从每年500美元到5 000美元不等。正在使用Revit、Rhino和Vector works软件的用户也提出了一些意见，但很难找到一个能独立满足景观行业制图要求并实现与其他专业跨平台协作的完美软件。一些专为景观设计的制图软件也被简单提及，如Land FX和Dynascapes。

4 新技术对教育的影响

2012年犹他州立大学的闫杰和杨博进行的一项研究表明，虽然新技术取得了许多积极的成果，但学习新技术所需的时间以及购买、更新软件所付出的高昂价格直接影响了用户对于这些技术的采用[6]。调查结果显示，新旧技术更替所付出的代价对公司应用和学校教育的影响十分明显。教授计算机制图20年以来，我统计过10多种有望成为“下一个最好的”制图软件。要知道，在教授软件之前，除了要懂得计算机的硬件配置和获得必要的许可之外，教师们还必须知道软件的使用方法。在许多情况下，这些技巧需要年复一年地应用于随后的班级中，而其他非专门教授软件的教师也需要在他们的教学工作中熟悉软件以便修改学生方案，但许多人并没有时间和精力来关注制图技术的发展进步。

随着技术精湛的专业人员数量的激增，许多设计师开始质疑计算机对于设计、图像读写和表达方面的影响。这些导致了设计表达在教学上的含混不清以及对教育与职业阶段所需技能清晰界定的缺失。

据闫先生2012年的调查显示，实践从业者和教育工作者之间对于软件的教学内容和选择应用等问题的看法存在差异。例如，调查中ArcGIS软件已问世数十年，但其在业内的使用程度最低。他的调查显示，在341名从业人员中有38%的人在使用ArcGIS，而24名教育工作者中，却有91%的人在教授这ArcGIS。同样地，像Rhinoceros 3D这样的软件只有13%的从业者在使用，却有61%的老师在教学。由于课程时间紧迫，学校教学的方法和内容将会影响到未来软件的使用和替代。

“……历史告诫我们，当我们教学的东西与实际设计项目中的东西相去甚远时，麻烦就来了。”

——科比·洛卡德，2000年

5 结论

在未来的几年内，风景园林行业的制图方式也许会有所变化。但遗憾的是，当前似乎并没有一个途径使风景园林专业在开发满足专业特殊需求的软件方面充分发挥话语权，并实现不同专业间的跨平台协作。

最后，调查结果表明我们专业长久以来系统地采用了先进技术，但却没能在最初应用的技术的基础上取得多少进步。可喜的是，许多专业人士仍将手绘融入设计过程，这也始终是景观设计课程和项目中最核心的要素。

“我认为，我们现在对软件技术强调过多，忽略通过手绘解决纯粹的设计问题。我认为学生们没有意识到‘技术只是一种工具而非一切设计的终极解决方式’。过分强调工具导致了一群年轻的专业人士只关心图面表达的漂亮与否，而不是实用的设计。而设计本身，才一直是景观专业的核心所在”。

——调查反馈

[1]Tai L.Assessing the Impact of Computer Use on Landscape Architecture Professional Practice: Efficiency,Effectiveness and Design Creativity[J].Landscape Journal,2003, 22: 2-3.

[2]Palmer J.The 1996 status report on computers in landscape architecture[J].Computing ,1998, 11(1): 2–5.

[3]Lange E, Bishop L.Visualization in the Landscape and Environmental Planning: technology and applications[M].New York: Taylor and Francis, 2005.

[4]Lockard K.DCA 2000 Keynote: Where Have We Been?The Recent History of Design Communication[EB/OL].(2000)[2008-11-13].http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JDC/Spring-2000/kirby/kirby.html.

[5]Calabria A, Buitrago J.Computer Graphics for Landscape Architects: An Introduction[M].Clifton Park:Cengage Delmar Learning, 2008.

[6]Yan J.An Evaluation of Current Applications of 3D Visualization Software in Landscape Architecture[D].Logan:Utah State University, 2014.

（编辑/王一兰）

1 Evolution of Graphics in Landscape Architecture

Most design fields begin the process for design through verbal communication and have expressed design ideas to others through traditional methods of drafting and rendering on paper, typically known as hand graphics.Various forms of graphics from loose conceptual diagrams to formal illustrative plans to highly technical constructive documents are developed with pencils, pens, markers and pastels on various types of paper are communicated to others through a design process.Standards of hand graphics have been in place for decades, however, an influx of advanced computer programs have continued to influence and often replace traditional graphics throughout the design process in Landscape Architecture.

Although Computer Aided Drawing (CAD)programs have been around since the 1960’s, computer applications were not adopted into Landscape Architecture until the 1980’s[1].Most Landscape Architecture firms reported using word processing and spreadsheet programs for business management until the mid-90’s when CAD (Computer Aided Drawing)became an industry standard for construction details[2].With the advent of AutoCAD by Autodesk and better computer graphics cards, few professions realized the impact that graphic programs would have in a little over a decade[3].

Although preliminary indications associate CAD with just construction documents, AutoCAD also offered other benefits such as easy corrections, precise drafting and graphic standards which could be easily transferred to colleagues and across design professions.With the opportunity to increase productivity, CAD started to replace other traditional methods of graphics throughout the design process.The history of graphics for design professions have since been enticed by the capabilities of computer graphics, but,in the words of Kirby Lockard (2000), not without many seductive pitfalls.

The speed of project production in the profession via computer graphics in the late 90’s increased and the hiring of computer capable employees was intoxicating.At this time, academia was also realizing the need for curricular adjustments to meet basic professional needs in regards to computer graphics[1].The pedagogical side of graphics had little time to absorb the educational implications and curricular time restraints in merging multimedium graphics.Where classes may have only been using and/or teaching hand graphics skills, courses now had to include computer applications.In many cases, four or more programs are being taught in conjunction with hand graphics, and in some design schools, computer graphics have superseded hand graphics in educational value.

2 Adoption of Computer Graphics

“Once upon a time, people in the design profession used very crude tools called pencils and pens to create plans.It was a very painstaking process, but the results, if done well, were stunning.Along came AutoCAD and everything changed…”

Nick Petty, UGA Graduate Student.2006

Starting an educational career in the late 90’s as a professor of both hand and computer graphics for landscape architecture, it was important for me to develop a practical course sequence which met professional demands.However, not much research had been done to determine what that might be.As a result, I started a series of early surveys in 2004,2006, 2007, 2009 and 2012 which began to track what technologies were being used and how.It was the beginning of a transitional period that saw over a dozen graphic applications taught with three leading technology applications emerging as essential to curriculum inclusion in order to meet/exceed hiring qualifications: AutoCAD by Autodesk, Photoshop by Adobe and SketchUp by Trimble[5].

2.1 AutoCAD

Originally used by architects in the 1960’s, CAD programs began to replace hand graphic development for construction details and other standardized documents in landscape architecture, eventually replacing hand-drafted base maps, planting plans, and other constructive documents typical to the profession.Formally released in 1982, AutoCAD became the most widely used CAD software in just over 4 years.It was an exciting tool which allowed quick changes and clean products.Students who learned it in school were highly marketable as it was adopted into office production.Even so, there were limitations in the original versions which had a cumbersome 3D platform and lacked in a variety of areas including design visualization,rendering and illustrative symbols.

2.2 Adobe Photoshop

In early to mid-1990’s, Adobe Photoshop was being used primarily for image display of photos,hence the name, but it soon began to emerge as a landscape architecture standard for artistic rendering and digital imagery manipulation, allowing for a modicum of visualization.With the advancement of scanners and file extension, designers could easily import hand-drawn or AutoCAD-drafted products for rendering a variety of materials with what seemed like endless colors, filters, and creative brush strokes.Digital imagery could generate quick photos of redesigned spaces, not only for design decision making but for communicating design ideas to clients.

2.3 SketchUp

In early to mid-2000, a rapid adoption of SketchUp for 3D modeling was an easy fix to the visualization and production package of a project,appropriately described as “3D for Everyone”.Free and relatively easy to learn, SketchUp already had been used by architects and furniture designers, and although it was a bit difficult to get smooth curved edges, landscape architects found a quick way to use SketchUp to generate short walk through animations,develop wire framing of architectural features for perspectives, and model the built environment for design visualization and decision making.

Although ubiquitous in a variety of design related professions, these technological advances in design communication have some negative consequences which are inherently rooted in the way Landscape Architecture needs to use them.

3 Recent Studies Examining What is Being Used in the Profession and Reflections on the Impact of Digital Communication

A more recent survey in 2014 by Graduate Student Rodney Benton and practitioner, Daniel Tal was conducted through ASLA, The American Society of Landscape Architects.This survey asked a variety offirms about their graphic production and technology use.The results indicate an interesting connection the profession of Landscape Architecture has with the history and adoption of graphic technology.

“New technology over the past 20 years has truly revolutionized my office, but at the same time there are days when I feel that the smallincremental advances in software are eating up an increased amount of time necessary to adapt to the new changes, which seem to rarely result in an increase in productivity that makes the time and effort worthwhile.”

Survey response

3.1 Survey Results

3.1.1 Firm Size and Demographics

The survey was sent out via survey monkey to 3,880 ASLA registered offices.729 offices replied.Over half of the offices, 55%, had a firm size between 2～49 employees.Sole proprietors made up 27% with the remaining offices having 50 or more employees.

Office demographics identified the professional composition of each responding firm.Firms that are mixed with Landscape Architects as well as Planners,Architects and/or Civil Engineers typically have a wider variety of technology in the office due to this larger mix of professionals.A vast majority, over 400 of the 729 offices had Landscape Architects only.Approximately 225 offices employed multiple disciplines and the remaining offices had a mix of hired planners,architects and engineers with landscape architects.

3.1.2 Hardware

In a time where Macintosh products have dominated technological advances in processing and touch screen technology with sleek designs and colorful displays, the survey clearly indicates that 75%of firms still use PC based computer hardware with another 15% using both PC and MAC computers.Part of this relates to the software typical to the landscape architecture industry and the historical significance of applications like AutoCAD which only ran on PCs in the past.Anticipating an increase in MAC usage,Autodesk wisely adopted a MAC friendly version, but it is still short of the full PC capabilities.

3.1.3 Graphic Style

Don’t get rid of that pencil sharpener yet.

“Most of the sketch up and cad renderings I've seen is crap.Can't touch rendering by hand.Learn to draw or get out of the business.”

Survey response

Use of hand and computer graphics have oscillated over time.With each new application there is always some speculation that hand graphics will be replaced and become outdated or unused.For educators, it’s a constant struggle to balance curricular time and skill development.For professionals, it’s a matter of what works the fastest and communicates the best.Surveys like this allow hand graphic professionals a chance to utilize and value this timeless artistic form of communication.Surprisingly, over 600 firms stated they used hand graphics in the office, primarily for conceptual design and basic presentation of ideas.While computer applications have certainly taken a firm hold on project development products, there is still an appreciation and usefulness for quick sketching,design thinking and preliminary communication.

“I think too much focus has become of the digital rendering and modeling programs, and does not replace the ability to draw.Additionally, I have found that there is a connection between students who only know 3D programs vs.those who can also draw by hand.Those who can draw seem to have a better understanding of spatial form and the artistic ability to show detail.While invaluable,3d modeling is only one tool.”

Survey response

3.1.4 Software

Here is where things start to get interesting.A larger list of applications was included in the original survey but a quick snapshot of the most widely used applications showed that MS Office has a variety of valuable uses making it the most practical application for the work environment.In regards to drawing,AutoCAD still remains a leader in drafting with Civil 3D on the rise.Photoshop is as widely used as AutoCAD and SketchUp in a close 3rd place.

“We have found that no single software on the market is truly suitable to the landscape architecture/urban design work that we do.It takes multiple programs to achieve our desired goals, but luckily many of the software have become more comparable and interchangeable with their internal and external data.Hopefully that trend will continue“.

Survey response

3.2 Technology Issues

Survey results suggested a general frustration with the cost of upgrades, having the time and resources to learn new technologies and other technical issues such as hardware needs and managing large file sizes.

“We are constantly evaluating and upgrading our technology but make changes only after much deliberation.Clients are always looking at the bottom line and we have to balance being technologically savvy with being financially competitive”.

Survey response

“It would be nice to see design software more geared towards what landscape architects need,but I've been saying that for over ten years now.”

Survey response

Many survey respondents expressed a general displeasure with Autodesk, expressing Autodesk’s disregard for our professional needs and more recently about how expensive it has gotten with too many upgrades.Complaints about Photoshop included having to purchase the full Creative Suite/Cloud package which included other applications that weren’t used.SketchUp is well known for generating enormousfile sizes and bogging down computers.Several firms have outsourcing resources, primarily in the US, but also abroad for advanced graphic production services.These services range from $500～$5,000 annually and are often required for sending/receiving files with multi-disciplinary offices or for client and presentation needs.

There were also many comments from survey respondents who are in the process of making those in house technology changes with Revit, Rhino and Vectorworks.Although Revit is more widely used,most comments really supported the adoption of Vectorworks.Unfortunately, the responses and results seem so random, it’s difficult to identify an up and coming leader which could meet the graphic needs of LA’s in one stylish package and that works across platforms with other professions.

“I am unhappy with the current selection of software offered to LA professionals.It would seem we are too small a group to demand purpose-built CAD software.The only thing I've seen out there that even comes close is Vectorworks, but that has compatibility issues with the Autodesk products.It seems to me that LA's always have to work with software that is designed for other disciplines.”

Survey response

There were a few brief mentions of applications that were designed for LA’s such as Land FX or Dynascapes, but for some reason they didn’t make the more widely used list.

4 The Impact of New Technologies in Education

In a 2012 study conducted by Jie Yan and Bo Yang at Utah State University, results clearly showed that while there are many positive results from new technologies, there are larger milestones for adopting them which revolve around time it takes to learn new technologies and the high price of purchasing and updating applications[6].While the cost of change is evident in survey results of firms, the cost of change is also evident in education.Having started teaching computer graphics during these two decades or more of transition, I have calculated over a dozen different applications/technologies our program adopted as “the next best thing”.Not only in hardware specifications and sometimes licensing, but faculty must know it for practical applications prior to teaching it.In many instances, these technologies need to be applied year after year in subsequent classes and other faculty (who wouldn’t typically teach technology) need to be familiar with it in their studio courses for project development,many who don’t have the time or resources to focus on graphic development.

“There has always been a big gap between what students are learning in LA programs and what is being used in small LA firms.Cause? Cost and the steep learning curve for principals and other employees.”

Survey response

The proliferation of technologically savvy professionals has risen and with that, many designers are starting to question the impact that computers have made in design, graphic literacy and representation.Much of this resulting in ambiguity in design communication pedagogy and a lack of identified trends in skill sets between education and the profession.Yan’s 2012 survey demonstrates some of the differences in perceptions between practitioners and educators on which applications should be taught and which applications are being used.For instance ArcGIS has been showing up in surveys for several decades but it has stayed relatively minimally used in the profession.However, Yan’s survey showed that while 38% of 341 practitioners use it, 91% of the 24 educators in the survey taught it.Likewise, applications like Rhinoceros 3D is used only 13% in the profession but 61% of those educators were using it.With a time crunched curriculum, how and what we decide to teach has implications of what we are leaving out or replacing.

“…history reminds us that one of the ways we get in trouble in teaching design communications is when we let what we are teaching get too separated from what is actually being done in design practice.”

Kirby Lockard, 2000

5 Conclusion

The Landscape Architecture profession might be undertaking some graphic change in the coming years.Unfortunately, there currently doesn’t seem to be a unified approach which would give LA’s a voice in the development of a profession specific application and potentially influence other disciplines to work across our platform.Ultimately, the survey results are a reflection of how our profession historically and systematically adopted what worked as technology advanced and hasn’t really been able to progress much beyond the initial adoption.Some of the best news may be that so many professionals are still using hand graphics and that, in conjunction with design skills, are the core elements of most Landscape Architecture programs throughout the curriculum.

“I honestly think there is TOO much emphasis on technology and not enough on pure and simple problem solving through hand drawn design.I don't think students are being properly taught that technology is a tool...not the end all in design.The over emphasis on tools is creating a group of young professionals that are all about pretty pictures and not enough about practical design...which has always been, still is and will always be…where the core of landscape architecture operates”.

Survey response