地理文脉中的景观价值与保护

作者：马劲武

翻译：胡凯富

Text: MA Jin-wu

Translator: HU Kai-fu

地理文脉中的景观价值与保护

作者：马劲武

翻译：胡凯富

Text: MA Jin-wu

Translator: HU Kai-fu

此文试图针对自然与文化的高价值景观进行偏向于地理手段的分析。文章先列举古代世界的六大文明发祥地，然后聚焦在中国的风景名胜。文章通过不同需求寻找景观价值的恰当表达方式与方法，分析具有代表性景观价值的不同分类。不同景观之间的地理关联强调了其地理空间上的认识和理解，特别是对近现代景观尤为如此。景观保护亦先需要对严重的应激因素进行分析，如人口、工农业发展、人类消费需求等。因此景观保护政策亦应依据这些应激因素而进行有的放矢的调控。

文化景观；景观价值；景观保护；地理文脉；地理信息系统

1　序言

整个世界在地理位置方面的联系正日益紧密。然而在古代，世界各国之间的文明似乎没有什么联系。六大古文明便是这样的例子，它们在世界版图上都是分散的点。然后，在2 000多年前出现了不同地区间的交互，使得它们发生了变化。尽管它们的地域界限不是很明确，但人们至少知道它们的大概位置。

虽然名胜景观的空间维度极小，但已有数百年发展的风景名胜区却有着相似的意义。总之，在文献中名胜景观通常以类似于古代文明的方式被描绘，有时甚至更糟的仅使用一个名称和照片。在后一种情况下，人们对于此类场地通常仅在内心存有一种图像，但对于它的准确位置一概不知。对于游客而言，不了解场地的位置是正常的，但对于专注于景观保护的专业景观设计师而言，这绝对是一个缺陷，因为对地理的不敏感可能会无法成功保护这些名胜景观。对于中国来说，由于其拥有大面积的国土以及多元的文化，因此对于景观的保护而言，采用地缘敏感的方法是势在必行的。

Translator:

HU Kai-fu, who was born in 1992 in Inner Mongolia, is a postgraduate student in Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University. His research focuses on Landscape Planning and Theories(Beijing 100083)

2　当前以地缘为导向的归档和表达方式

1 世界遗产名录中中国的50个文化景观地点China's 50 Cultural Landscape Sites Made into World Heritage List

2004年，总部位于美国的全球遗产基金，明确地标出8个具有重要文化价值的中国文化遗产地区，并把它们展示在单色中国地图上。联合国教科文组织还对中国做了一个文化遗产的交互式地图，并展示了50个具有重大文化意义的遗址地点（图1）（世界遗产名录，日期不详）。

同样，如瑞典等其他一些西方国家，也在大量地使用地图来标记他们国家的文化景观遗产所在的位置（文化遗产与保护，1994年）。除了其文化意义，这些景观也具有天然的美感。一个典型的例子是中国五大名山，黄山在地理位置上位于中心。即使有些景观文化遗产的场地被摧毁，但它的精神美感依然延续，就像北京的圆明园。但是，一个理想的景观名胜应该兼具以上两个特点，杭州西湖便是很好的例子，它在1 000多年前就已经被视为珍宝。所有这些名胜景观，无论是具有文化意义还是现实意义或者两者兼具，都应该在地理上具有可识别的空间位置，因为所有这些都存在着丰富的文化和自然方面的联系，使其处于相应的地理环境背景下才能更有效的维护它们。

3　地理信息系统在景观保护中的作用

2 春秋时期的中国的平原（公元前5世纪）Chinese Plain in the Late Spring and Autumn Period (5th Century BC)

诺尔斯在她的著述“过去的时代，过去的地方—GIS对于历史的意义”中认为历史和地理是融为一体的。她认为地理是对于空间划分的研究，而历史是对于时间划分的研究，因此，空间现象与其时间因素是密不可分的（诺尔斯，2002）。地理信息系统的强大之处在于，它可以立即提供关于当前风景名胜景点的重要信息。该信息包括地理信息，如位置、海拔等或者是其属性信息，如历史信息。在实际使用中，人们往往没有明确区分这些信息，而是一起使用这些信息。将GIS应用于景观的价值评估和保护是一种很有效的方式，诺尔斯的许多案例都证明了这一观点。有一个GIS的简单实例是通过GIS以动画的形式展示在中国丰富历史长河中的不同边界。但如果仅采用口头表述与静态地图的话，以上变化是很难被展现出来的（图2）。

4　不同级别的信息处理

人们普遍认为，数据→信息→知识→智慧的连续呈现是一种有效的方式，以理解人类思想是如何采用数字化的方式运转的。因为不同阶段所采用的适当的表达/呈现的方式不同，并且后者所处的阶段正是前者的一个进步。

数据到智慧的连续过程也有不同的间隔。起初我们善于采用描述个体特征的纯文本。然后便是擅长描述多个条目的属性信息的表格和模型。图像以一种直观的方式给予人们图像信息，特别是外在表现方面。区位标签能够展示人们的功能定位和命名。然而，最终的信息将通过地图和地理敏感信息图表来展示。这就是典型的GIS演示。它的数据是及其丰富的，并在地理环境中准确地构建一种特定功能。通过这种展示方式，用图形化来解释一切。

5　地理基础设施的概念

把所用事物都融入到地理文脉中是一种地理基础设施的概念，特别是针对具有文化和自然价值的风景名胜。把特点标记在地图上，不仅是为了识别其地理特征，例如地名，更重要的是识别空间关系，伴随着大量的地理感知的属性信息，地理基础设施就是把特点标记在地图上。我们需要展示这些点，以及点与点之间的联系。伟大的六大古文明，虽然通过3D展示是一种更好的方式，但也可以通过（图3）这样简单的方式表达在世界地图上。

3 六大古代世界文明Six Ancient World Civilizations

6　案例

一位不知名的作者开发了一款很好的手机应用程序，它展示了中国48个具有价值的风景名胜，并将其分为8大类。这是页面的屏幕截图（图4）。

尽管该项目做得很好，但也存在一些问题。它有什么问题呢？除了名称和图片，人们并不知道它们在哪里，它们之间有何联系，甚至不了解相关地方的详细信息。

如果想让该项目得到提升，作者提出了被称之为中国风景名胜展示项目的方案（图5）（CTLAD）。

中国的风景名胜一览无余，其所解决的几个问题如下：

它们在哪里？人们认为/猜测它们在哪里？

每个类型在空间上是如何分布的？它们是紧紧地靠在一起还是分散的？

为什么它们在这里？

它们是自然美景还是文化瑰宝，或者两者兼具？

可能受到什么人类影响？

我们如何更好的管理/保护它们？

用户有两种查询功能：选择表中一个单元或地图中的一个点。无论哪种方式，都有对应的信息、图像和文本出现在右侧。更为重要的是，在用户查询该类别（一列）或此类中对应的独特景观（在列的单元格）时，地图上的对应点都会变亮（图6）。

4 最美中国的手机应用程序China the Beautiful Cell Phone App

5 中国风景名胜展示项目China Treasured Landscape Attractions Dashboard

6 中国风景名胜展示项目中个人查询功能的两种方式CTLAD Individual Feature Query in Two Ways

每个功能的表述都是中英双语。中国风景名胜展示项目依然能够扩展更多的内容和功能，如连接到动静态的视频和显示实时气候和文化信息等。当然，由于这仅仅是一个原型，所以更多的扩展选项还可以加入。该项目的优势在于，用户可以使用最小的屏幕面积获得最大的信息量，这些信息对为景观保护而作出合理的决定是非常有效的。

7　三个标志性的文化景区

中国南方三大名楼分别是黄鹤楼、岳阳楼和滕王阁。由于它们都是木结构，并极易发生火灾，所以它们曾被摧毁并修复和重建过多次。因此，我们迫切需要使其处于良好的状态以避免它们在未来再次遭到摧毁和破坏。

他们不仅有美丽的外观，而且还拥有丰富的文化背景。一些著名的诗人曾经这样赞美他们：

故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州——黄鹤楼, 位于武汉市。

先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐——岳阳楼,位于岳阳市。

落霞与孤鹜齐飞，秋水共长天一色——滕王阁,位于南昌市 。

它们的共同的特征就是主体建筑依水而建。然而，通过GIS能够发现近期水位的降低竟然超过了20% (Wikipedia)，这使得它们完美视觉效果在感官和人们的头脑中大大降低。全球变暖是视觉价值降低的罪魁祸首，并且像中国风景名胜展示这样的项目，如果水位下降的问题不能得到缓解，至少要把风景保护专家及时的反馈意见运用到对于这个问题的评估中，才能使得解决方案相应地开展。

8　其他应激因素的思考

还有一些应激因素可以影响到对于风景位置价值的评估。其中人口的压力将会导致的过度消费和更多的工业和农业活动。可操作性也是一种影响，并且一些人类的控制，可能也是阻止景观退化的一种措施。

生态不仅是大多数风景吸引人的基础，而且也是其健康状态与否的敏感性检测仪。有效的生态规划是景观保存价值的可靠方法。

这里举一个例子，三峡大坝的建设被认为是直接导致鄱阳湖水位下降的原因 (Zhang Q, 2014)。间接原因是全球气候变暖，这也是由于人类在全球范围内的破坏行为而引起的。随着鄱阳湖水位的降低，一个更具威胁的因素就是我们该如何能保护 “落霞与孤鹜齐飞，秋水共长天一色”这种能够识别该场景的珍贵景观价值？我们需要客观地对待地理信息系统对于影响评估的分析和类似于中国风景名胜展示这类的项目，这或许是一个良好的开端。此外，随着 ArcGIS Online 已被应用于实时地图，评估过程中更多的因素将会受到重视，正如实时地图这个名字所表达的含义一样，它的数据是不断更新和升级的。

9　重新思考风景园林设计师的角色

我们以身为一名风景园林设计师而感到自豪。然而，我们是生活在一个象牙塔里吗？我们是在做锦上添花的工作吗？笔者认为我们最好不要，因为我们在这里不仅仅是为了让我们的环境变得更美好，更多的是为了拯救地球。为此，生态规划就是我们要走的路。听起来是不是很熟悉？是的，我们需要重新审视伊恩·麦克哈格的贡献，因为他在大多数人们没有意识到环境问题之前，就预测到了环境问题的严重性。他提倡我们要拥有创新思维并扩展我们的“专业”，原因便是我们的工作不仅仅是为了改善环境，而且更多的是为了人类的生存。

10　结论

重视/保护景观就是重视/保护我们的生命！对于我们的景观价值评估和保护工作框架而言，地理应是一种基础条件。景观保护需要明智和聪明的措施。我们需要在自我需要和大自然的需求之间取得平衡，并利用数字技术，特别是地理信息系统。这最终将会使我们的景观保护工作更加高效。

1　Introduction

The world is increasingly inter-connected geographically. In ancient times, world civilizations seemed to have originated independently without much inter-connections among them.The great six ancient civilizations are such examples and they can be represented by scattered dots on a world map.Then about two thousand years ago came the interactions among different regions. Although their geographical boundaries are not clearly defined, people at least know where they are approximately centered.

Sites of great landscape values developed over hundreds or even thousands of years are of similar significance, although at a much smaller dimension in their spatial extents.However, the references of valuable landscape sites are still usually portrayed in the similar manner like those of ancient world civilizations, sometimes even worse, when only a name and pictures are used.In this latter case, people would typically have only a mental image about a scene, but would have no idea on where exactly it’s located. It is fine for regular tourists not knowing such a site’s geographical location, but for professional landscape architects who specialize in landscape preservations this is definitely a deficiency, because this geographical insensitivity could compromise efforts to protect these valuable landscape sites. For China, with its large expanse of geographical area and heterogeneous cultures, a geo-sensitive approach on landscape preservation is even more imperative.

2　Current Geo-Oriented Archiving and Presentation Method

In 2004, the US-based Global Heritage Fund identified eight sites in China of great cultural values (Fund, 2004), and showed them on a onecolor China map.UNESCO World Heritage List also maintains an interactive map for China, showing 50 sites of great cultural significance (Figure 1) (World Heritage List).

Similarly, some other western countries, such as Sweden, have also used large amount of geographical maps in mapping their cultural landscape treasures (Cultural Heritage and Preservation, 1994).Besides cultural significance, there may exist physical beauties in each of them. A typical example would be China’s five famous mountains, Mount Huang being the central one geographically. There are also perpetuated“mental beauties” even after a physical site has been destroyed, such as that of the well-known Yuanmingyuan in Beijing.An ideal landscape of values, however, should retain both, and a great example would be the West Lake in Hangzhou, which has been treasured since at least a thousand years ago.All of these highly treasured landscapes, be it cultural or physical or both, should have their spatial setting recognizable in geographical space, since all of them exist in rich cultural and physical inter-connections, and it is more effective to manage them in geographical context.

3　The Role of GIS in Landscape Preservation

In her well-known book “Past Time, Past Place - GIS for History”, Knowles argued that history and geography cannot be separated. Therefore, a spatial phenomenon cannot be separated with its temporal factors, as geography is the study of spatial differentiation, and history the study of temporal differentiation (Knowles, 2002).The power of GIS is that it can provide vital information about a feature, i.e. a valued landscape attractions, instantly. The information can be geographical, such as location, elevation etc. or attributes, such as historical information. When in real use, people often do not distinguish them clearly and use them together. Using a GIS for landscape value assessment and preservation proves to be an effective way, as were shown with various examples in the work of Knowles.A simple GIS use example for China is one that shows various boundaries throughout Chinese’s rich history in animation forms.It’d be quite difficult if only verbal and static mapping approach is employed (Figure 2).

4　Different Levels of Information Processing

It is widely recognized that Data→Information→Knowledge→Wisdom continuum presents an effective way to understand how human thoughts are processed by way of digital means.With each different stage comes with its most appropriate ways of expression/presentation, and each subsequent stage is an advancement of the previous one.

There are also different granularities in this data-wisdom continuum.We start with pure texts, which is good at describing individual feature verbally. Then comes tables or matrix, and they are good at enumerating multiple entries with more attribute information. Images are great in giving people graphical information in an intuitive way about an especially physical appearance.Locational labels can show people where a feature is locatedand what it is named. However, the ultimate information presentation is through maps or geo-sensitive infographics. This is a typical GIS presentation. It is data rich, and it frames a specific feature in an accurate geographical setting precisely. With this presentation method, what, how, why can all be graphically explained by showing where.

5　Concept of Geographical Infrastructure

Placing everything, especially landscapes of great cultural and physical values, into geographical context, is the idea of geographical infrastructure. Placing features on a map not only for its locational identification, such as place names, but also spatial relationship, along with a plethora of rich geographical-sensitive attribute information is what a geo-infrastructure is about. We need to show their dots, as well as connections among the dots. The great six ancient world civilizations can in this way be presented in a simple world map (Figure 3), although a better approach would be using a 3D globe.

6　An Example

An unnamed author created a nice cell phone app showing 48 Chinese landscape treasures in eight categories.Here is a screen shot showing a page (Figure 4).

The project is well-done but there are some issues.What problem does it have?Besides a name and a picture, people don’t know where they are and how they are related, not to mention further information about a place.

As an enhancement, the author proposed the following project, which is named as China Treasured Landscape Attractions Dashboard (Figure 5) (CTLAD).

This is China treasured landscapes at a glance, in which the following problems are addressed:

1. Where they are?Are they where I think/ guess they are?

2. How each category is distributed spatially?Are they close by or scattered around?

3. Why they’re located where they are?

4. Are they natural beauties, cultural treasures, or mixed?

5. What is possible human impact?

6. How can we better manage/protect them?

Users can query the features in two ways: select a cell in the table or select a dot on the map. Either way a corresponding information sheet, with a picture and texts, is updated on the right.What’s more, a user can query a category (a column), and a particular attractions in that category (a cell in the column) and the corresponding dot is highlighted in the map (Figure 6).

The description for each feature is bi-lingual in both English and Chinese.The CTLADP can still be extended to add more features and contents, such as linking to static or dynamic videos, showing live climate data and more cultural information etc. Since this is only a prototype, more enhancement options can be added, of course.The advantage of this dashboard project is to let users use a minimum screen real estate to obtain maximum information, on which to make sound decisions for landscape preservation effectively.

7　Three Iconic Cultural and Scenic Attractions

The three south-China famed ancient structures are well-known in China.They are Huanghe Lou, Yueyang Lou, and Tengwang Ge. Due to the fact that they were constructed in wood and prone to fire, they were destroyed many times and reconstructed many times as well. It is imperative to avoid any future destructions and preserve them in great conditions.

They are not only aesthetically pleasing in their physical appearance, but also boast rich cultural context.Some well-known poems about each of them are (without English translation):

故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。-- 黄鹤楼, Wuhan

先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐。--岳阳楼, Yueyang

落霞与孤鹜齐飞，秋水共长天一色。--滕王阁, Nanchang

One common feature for each of them is that they are all built by a water body, either a river or a lake.However, due to recent lowering of water levels, some suffering a drop of more than 20% by GIS analysis (Wikipedia), their actual visual quality dropped precipitously from their perceived, perfect images.Global warming proved to be the main culprit for their visual value degradation, and project like CTLAD can be used, if not alleviate the problem, at least send preservation experts quick feedback to assess the issue, so that possible resolutions can be planned accordingly.

8　Other Stress Factors Consideration

There could be several stress factors that can impact a valued landscape site.Among them are pressures from population that leads to more consumption and more industry and agricultureactivities.Accessibility also can be an impact and some control of human access may be a measure to prevent landscape degradation.

Ecology is not only a foundation for lots of landscape attractions but also a sensitive indicator of an attraction’s healthiness.Sound ecological planning is thus a sure way for landscape value preservation.

Take Poyang Lake water level drop, for example, the direct cause is believed to be the construction of Three Gorges Dam (Zhang Q, 2014).The indirect cause is global warming, which is also due to human interferences at a global scale. With the decreasing water level of Poyang Lake, a more threatening factor, how can we preserve “落霞与孤鹜齐飞，秋水共长天一色”, a treasured landscape value that identifies with the scene?We need objective GIS analysis for impact assessment, and project like CTLADP could be a good start. Moreover, with ArcGIS Online that tabs into the Living Atlas, more factors can be weighed in for assessment purposes, and the Living Atlas, as its name suggests, is live in that the data are constantly added and updated.

9　Rethink Landscape Architects’ Roles

We are proud to be landscape architects. However, do we live in an Ivory tower?Are we the icing on the cake?I think we’d better not, as we’re here to rescue the earth, not just make it better. To heal the earth, ecological planning is the way to go. Sounds familiar?Yes, we need to re-examine Ian McHarg’s contributions, as he predicted our environmental issues years before most of us realizing it.He advocated us to think out-of-thebox, and our “profession”, because it’s not only about improvements, but more about survival.

10　Conclusion

To value/preserve a landscape is to value/ preserve our life!Geography ought to be the infrastructure for our landscape value assessment and preservation efforts’ framework. Preservation requires wise and smart conservation. We need to balance between our own needs and nature’s needs, and leveraging digital technology, especially GIS. This will eventually make our landscape preservation work more efficient.

致谢：

感谢esri的张金南的技术支持和对中国风景名胜展示项目的帮助。

Acknowledgment:

The author thanks for the technical help of esri’sJinnan Zhang with his assistance for CTLADP.

（References）：

[1]L. W. et al. (1994). Cultural Heritage and Preservation. Stockholm, Sweden: SNA Publishing.

[2]Center, U. W. (n.d.). World Heritage List. Retrieved from UNESCO World Heritage Center: http://whc.unesco.org/en/ list/

[3]Fund, G. H. (2004). Saving Our Global Heritage. Palo Alto, CA, USA: Global Heritage Fund.

[4]Knowles, A. K. (2002). Past Time, Past Place. Redlands, USA: esri Press.

[5]Wikipedia. Poyang Lake.Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Poyang_Lake

[6]Zhang QX, Werner A, Li Y, Yao J, Li X, Xu C.Ye. (2014,May). Science Direct.Journal of Hydrology: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0022169414004156

Landscape Values and Preservation in Geographical Context

This paper attempts to present valued landscapes, both natural and cultural, on geographical backdrops starting with the six ancient civilizations and moving onto landscapes of great values in China.It analyzes different levels of representing valued landscapes, with a presentation on how to appropriately showcase any landscape of value based on various needs.Spatial recognition and perception are stressed in relating them geographically, especially with contemporary landscapes.Landscape preservation needs are analyzed with consideration of several stress factors such as population, industrial and agricultural activities, and human consumption needs. Landscape preservation policies should then be assessed based on these stress factors.

Cultural Landscape; Landscape Value; Landscape Preservation; Geographical Context; GIS

TU986

A

1673-1530（2016）08-0091-07

10.14085/j.fjyl.2016.08.0091.07

2016-04-26

2016-07-23

马劲武/清华大学建筑系学学士/北京林业大学风景园林学硕士/美国堪萨斯大学地理学硕士/现为美国环境系统研究院地理信息系统高级工程师/专长地理设计

Author:

MA Jin-wu, bachelor in architecture from Tsinghua University, master in landscape architecture from Beijing Forestry University, master in geography from University of Kansas, USA.Now he serves as a senior GIS product engineer at esri, USA, with expertise in geodesign.

胡凯富/1992年生/男/内蒙古人/北京林业大学风景园林学硕士研究生/研究方向：风景园林规划设计与理论（北京 100083）