Attitudes against Uncle Tomism in the black communityduring the 20th century

Luo xiaoyun

【Abstract】Nowadays， in most of African Americans minds， the negative attitude towards Uncle Tom is dominant. Today， the term “Uncle Tom” has become an insult， conjuring an image of an old black man eager to please his white master and happy to accept his own position of inferiority， a figure from heroic one to inflammatory racial betrayer. People can even find the meaning of the word in all kinds of dictionaries， with mostly negative explanations. This paper analyzes a great many of comments about Uncle Tom， especially negative ones， and presents opinions of several eminent black writers， social historians and critics.

【Key words】attitude； negative； Uncle Tomism； black community

Until the 1960s and 1970s， the Black Power and Black Arts Movements attacked the novel， saying that the character of Uncle Tom engaged in “race betrayal，” saying that Tom made slaves out to be worse than slave owners. So many American especially the black community express their strong repugnance toward Tom that his name has gradually become a label of opprobrium， now referring to “a Black man who is submissively loyal or servile to White men” （Baldwin James，1955：18） is a remarkable study of stereotyping， racial identification， and the supplanting of religious values by political loyalties.

1. Marcus Garveys attitude

Marcus Garvey was the first public figure to use “Uncle Tom” as a pejorative term， and his speeches， other Universal Negro Improvement Association （UNIA） publications and public events gave wide circulation to the term as a way to stigmatize blacks who betrayed the cause of their race. “Uncle Tom's dead and buried，” proclaimed protest signs at the parade that opened the UNIA's first convention in 1920 in New York. According to the New York World report （7 August 1920） in an address to the convention， Rev. George Alexander McGuire declared that “the Uncle Tom nigger has got to go and his place must be taken by the new leader of the Negro race . . . not a black man with a white heart， but a black man with a black heart.” （ Uncle Toms Cabin，2009）

Marcus Garvey， a social activist and journalist and a major figure of the Harlem Renaissance， was in the vanguard of the new awakening among African Americans. Promoting his ideals in the art of oratory and through his newspapers， first Negro World and later the Blackman， Garvey has influenced almost every generation of African American writers since. Marcus Garvey and the UNIA formed a critical link in black America's centuries-long struggle for freedom， justice， and equality. It is still possible to say that Garveyism occupies a central place in the struggle for democracy， dignity and social transformation. （Rupert Lewis and Patrick Bryan， 1998）

2. Harlem Renaissances Influence and the Intellectuals Works

After World War I， black Americans had a new cultural demand with the improvement of material life. In 1920s，millions of southern blacks moved into the northern cities to make a fortune and city life changed their attitudes. Their strong feelings of dignity and self-consciousness were aroused under the control of white society. At that time， the “New Negro Movement” appeared in the American literary history， also known as the “Harlem Renaissance”.

The Harlem Renaissance was the important turning point in American black literature and the 1920s saw a great many outstanding black writers and their excellent works. The Negro intellectuals attempted to build a race and define a culture. Beginning with Langston Hughes and Richard Wright， black intellectuals began to flourish. The tasks of the Harlem Renaissance were mainly summarized into two： one was to deny the old image of blacks in literary works like Uncle Tom in Uncle Toms Cabin，asking for new image ； the other was to reinforce and improve the artistic expressional ability of blacks. Richard Wright and his “City Realistic Literature” or “Protest Novel” show that blacks have strengthened their consciousness of nationalism and struggled perseveringly for their equality and dignity. Also his works depict the struggle of African Americans against social and political forces. （ 陈亚丽. 2006）

3. Richard Wrights works against the image of Uncle Tom

The “Protest Novel” reflects black peoples dire living situation and that the racial segregation and racial discrimination still exist in the American society. The “Protest Novel” calls for all of the American people to focus on this serious racial problem. Uncle Toms Children is Wrights first protest novel written in1938， a portrait of life under Jim Crow Laws， depicts a series of images of black adolescence who have resistant spirits. The name of this novel refers to “Negro of today”， which is quite different from Negro of Uncle Toms era. They are no longer meek and submissive； instead， they are rebellious and brave enough to fight against racial discrimination and racial oppression. Wright seems to imply in his book， as he does in his other fiction， that American social conditions are directly responsible for the degradation of black people. The pessimistic determinism taught the young Wright the meaning of racial oppression. A victim of oppression himself， Wright directed his energy toward rebellion. While he escaped the pessimistic outlook of realism， his respect for that philosophy helped him develop his own individualism and endow his characters with self-awareness. （ Yoshinobu Hakutani， 1993）

Another book， Native Son， also written by Wright in 1940， is a powerful， intensely gripping story in which a Negro boy driven to crime by reasons of a Chicago tenement environment and the pressure of racial injustice. In Native Son， the black protagonists are full of strong desire for the self-respect in the white world. They explore the Negros destiny and reflect the reality of American society. The hero Bigger is a revolting Negro， no longer a victim or martyr of racial discrimination. This new black image brings about great social effect.

Compared with Uncle Tom， Bigger had made a great step forward in fighting racial discrimination. His influence is far-reaching. The publication of Native Son brought tremendous shock to the society， especially to whites. Bigger， unlike the other figures depicted before him， for the first time set the example of violent fighting. His activity aroused the hatred among other blacks. He certainly gained， to some degree， a kind of psychological control over the environment.

4. James Baldwin's protest and his Everybodys Protest Novel

The next generation of writers displaying their attitude against Uncle Tom might be termed the precursors of the Black Arts Movement best represented by James Baldwin's protest themes in Everybodys Protest Novel， which is one of the most famous critiques against Uncle Toms Cabin. In his book， Baldwin argued that “it is a very bad novel”， ruined by its “self-righteous， virtuous sentimentality”. （Baldwin James，1955：14）

In Baldwins opinion， sentimentality was not to be trusted： “The ostentatious parading of excessive and spurious emotion is the mark of dishonesty， the inability to feel，” he wrote. “It is always， therefore， the signal of secret and violent inhumanity， the mask of cruelty.” Real men， for Baldwin， dont sign， dont cry， and certainly are not satisfied with a kiss on the cheek. He found the book racially obtuse and aesthetically crude. Toms political impotence， for Baldwin， is symbolized by his sexual impotence. What he saw was a desexualized Uncle Tom. He was scathing in his criticism of the books portrayal of the Negro， especially with regard to Uncle Toms humility.

Uncle Tom， who is a figure of controversy yet， is jet-black， wooly-haired， and illiterate； and he is phenomenally forbearing. He has to be； he is black； only through this forbearance can he survive or triumph. His triumph is metaphysical， unearthly； since he is black， born without the light， it is only through humility， the incessant mortification of the flesh， that he can enter into communion with God or man……God and salvation being her personal property， purchased with the coin of her virtue. Here， black equates with evil and white with grace；…… （Baldwin James，1955：14）

Baldwin， for his part， criticizes Uncle Tom strongly for his tolerance and humility. “Uncle Tom” had become a potent brand of political impotence in Baldwins eyes. He also deplores Stowes use of sentiment and her dehumanizing lack of “true” black characters. Baldwin's hostility to the novel has been shared by many twentieth-century black writers whose works make us appreciate the depth of the psychological scars of racial prejudice. Baldwin was unable to stomach the matriarchal zeal and （by today's standards） condescending tone of Stowe's case for black emancipation — her case for black humanity.

5. Conclusion

Though the hero of Harriet Beecher Stowes famous abolitionist novel Uncle Toms Cabin has survived till today， it remains as a name of contempt in most blacks mind， especially in some famous black intellectuals. “Uncle Tom”， has become one of the most inflammatory racial insults that a black person can offer another. Though not quite as powerful， or as controversial， as the “n” word， the term still packs a powerful punch of contempt.

References：

[1]“Uncle Toms Cabin & American Culture- African American Responses- Signifying on Uncle Tom-“Uncle Tom” in the 20th Century”.[OL]http：//utc.iath.virginia.edu/index2f.html，2009.6.

[2]Rupert Lewis and Patrick Bryan，eds.“Garvey：His Work and Impact” ，Mona，Jamaica：Institute of Social and Economic Research，1988：171[OL]http：//www.international.ucla.edu/africa/mgpp/intro.asp（accessed August 6，2009）.

[3]陈亚丽.斯托及赖特小说中的美国黑人[J].南通大学学报，2006.11，（6）：66-70.

[4]Yoshinobu Hakutani，“Richard Wright，” in Dictionary of Literary Biography，Vol.102，American Short-Story Writers，1910-1945，Second Series，edited by Bobby Ellen Kimbel，Gale Research，1991：378 – 86.[OL]http：//www.answers.com/topic/big-black-good-man-story-7，1993.6.

[5]Uncle Toms Children.com[OL]http：//www.answers.com/topic/uncle-tom-s-children-1，2000.6.

[6]Baldwin James，Notes of a Native Son（Boston：Beacon Press，1955.14.

作者简介：骆晓云，昆明学院外国语学院讲师，硕士研究生，研究方向：英语文学、文化，美国黑人文学。