环境暴露与非城市儿童哮喘发病率的关系
2016-03-11赵咏梅刘凯
赵咏梅 刘凯
环境暴露与非城市儿童哮喘发病率的关系
赵咏梅 刘凯
城市与非城市儿童哮喘患病率和流行趋势在近几十年的研究中已经被广泛认识。由于非城市的自然属性及虫害过敏原(如:蟑螂和鼠标)在美国城市住房中的高浓度出现与过敏状态的儿童的哮喘发病率明显相关。此外,有证据显示无论是美国还是欧洲国家诸多污染物在室内的浓度比室外要高的多。而颗粒物(PM)和氮氧化物(NO2)的暴漏与儿童哮喘症状独立相关。虽然实施环境干预具有一定的挑战性,但室内过敏原及污染物的减少,确实可以改善哮喘症状。包括饮食及营养在内的一些可改善危险因素目前已被发现。比如,超重或肥胖儿童的呼吸道更容易收到污染物暴漏的影响。维生素及叶酸摄入不足也被认为是儿童哮喘的危险因素。然而对这些危险因素的鉴定可为城市儿童哮喘的干预带来成熟时机。我国城市污染现状堪忧,这些危险因素的鉴别将为我国儿童哮喘的治疗带来新机遇。因此,本文对相关内容做一综述。
环境暴露;儿童哮喘
在近几十年的研究中,美国及欧洲国家城市儿童哮喘的高患病率和流行趋势已经被广泛认识。即使未能提出降低城市儿童哮喘发病率及流行有效措施,但对城市儿童哮喘的危险因素有了更进一步的深入认识[1-3]。在欧洲及北美,包括NOx及颗粒物的室内污染已被发现。在美国,蟑螂及老鼠不常见。一些以被少数种族主义污染及污染为特征的城市边缘地区被称为“城中村”。这些城中村特征是导致城市儿童哮喘发病率高的原因。包括住房特征及条件、交通和社会心里应激及一些平困相关的因素。同样在我们国家,也受这些因素的影响,甚至更明显[3]。
1 室内过敏原
诸如与城市儿童哮喘密切相关的宠物和小动物粉尘等室内过敏原是城市家庭常见的,但在本综述中主要关注与儿童哮喘发病更具特异性的宠物过敏原。因为,基于城中村的自然属性,宠物过敏尿在城中村的住房里常被检测到,且浓度往往较高。贫苦的住房条件和公用墙壁、地板、衣物给蟑螂、老鼠、及大鼠提供了理想的生存环境。在美国有很多种寄生蟑螂,以德国及美国蟑螂为主,且德国蟑螂过敏原最常见且被广泛研究[4-6]。这些研究显示,85%的城中村家庭可以检测到德国蟑螂过敏原,而且2/3的城中村儿童哮喘患者的皮肤对蟑螂过敏,使得他们对蟑螂过敏原暴漏具有易感性[4,7-8]。事实上,将蟑螂过敏的儿童暴漏在蟑螂过敏原种将导致很高的哮喘发病率[9]。但是,总体上讲,欧洲国家的致敏率明显低于美国,这可能是因为交叉反应所致,而不是单纯的针对蟑螂的原始IgE[10-12]。波兰的研究显示25%的儿童哮喘患者对蟑螂过敏,其中大部分患者的住所可以检测到蟑螂过敏原,同时蟑螂过敏原与严重哮喘也存在一定相关性。这说明蟑螂过敏原暴漏与致敏至少在欧洲国家存在某些临床相关性[13]。
啮齿动物过敏原暴漏的作用机制在过去几十年内并未得到很好的认识。有研究报道95%城中村住房内可以检测到鼠过敏原,非城市住房内的检测率也高达惊人的75%~80%[14-16]。而城市及城中村住房的显著差异主要体现在鼠过敏原浓度。研究显示58%~90%哮喘儿童房卧室内空气中可检测到空气传播的大鼠过敏原,其中约25%的样本所含鼠过敏原浓度和实验室内相当[17-18]。显然,可以推测,大鼠过敏原和其他室内过敏原一样存在明显的地域分布差异,中北美城市明显高于西部城市。有粗略研究显示大鼠过敏原的分布在同一城市中也存在明显差异。但这些分布差异是否因为楼龄及楼房类别或其他因素,目前尚不得而知[19-21]。
多中心研究报道大鼠过敏率约18%~22%,一些城市达50%或更高,严重哮喘人群中过敏率更高[20,22]。一些可信的报道显示对大鼠过敏的儿童哮喘发病率与大鼠过敏原暴露相关性更加明确。大鼠过敏原过敏或暴露的儿童,哮喘症状更多、需要更多的医学干预、较高的NO浓度、肺功能差及较高的支气管舒张实验阳性率。这说明肺部感染可加重哮喘症状[18,20,23-24]。
最近一些研究多关注室内特定位置的大鼠过敏原浓度与儿童哮喘临床流行性德关系[18]。大鼠过敏原与儿童哮喘研究委员会的研究显示,卧室地板、厨房或卧室空气中大鼠过敏原比粉尘样本与哮喘发作而接受急诊处理的相关性更为密切。在此研究中,同时检测了大鼠过敏原的暴露剂量与哮喘发病率的相关性。用线性相关分析比较了大鼠过敏原过敏与非过敏测试者在室内大鼠过敏原暴露下的哮喘发病率的关系。总体说,随着大鼠过敏原暴露剂量的降低儿童哮喘发病率随之降低;大鼠过敏原暴露可导致哮喘目前尚不清楚,相关它使城中村儿童哮喘患儿病情恶化的作用得到了更清楚的理解。但是,出生委员会的研究发现,父母陈述的儿童出生第1年大鼠过敏原的暴露以及2~3岁时对其过敏与早年喘息关系更加密切[25-26]。
少数针对欧洲城市的研究显示大鼠过敏原暴露、室内粉尘中大鼠过敏原及其对大鼠过敏的现象不仅相同,但整体低于美国城郊人群。在此研究中,Strasbourg公卫中心中室内大鼠过敏原检测阳性率约60%,但其浓度比美国城郊房屋低1000倍[27]。一项来自意大利的研究显示,过敏专科医生所接触的患者约5%对大鼠或小鼠过敏,且城市大鼠繁殖能力明显低于美国城郊[28]。来自波兰的有关城郊哮喘的调查显示,虽然大鼠过敏原浓度大大低于美国城郊,35%患者对大鼠过敏且过敏与粉尘中大鼠过敏原明显相关[29]。
2 室外污染物
虽然室外污染物对城市哮喘儿童的呼吸道有严重不良反应,可以渗透入室内从而导致室内污染,但有日趋增加的研究表明室内污染物浓度明显高于室外。这说明室内污染物对城市哮喘儿童的症状具有独立性[30]。
室内空气悬浮PM、二手烟和NO2等室内污染物的研究最为深入[31-35]。空气悬浮粉尘(PM)根据其大小进行测量,其直径不大于2.5微米被认定为无公害[32]。直径介于2.5~10微米的粉尘颗粒认为是粗颗粒。无害及粗粉尘颗粒为PM10。二手烟(SHS)含有多种成分,在自然界中以颗粒及气态形式存在[36]。SHS主要成分为PM2.5,主要气态成分为空气悬浮尼古丁。
城市家庭室内PM浓度明显高于城郊,也是室外PM的2倍[31]。吸烟、清扫及木材使用是室内PM2.5及PM10的制造者[32]。室内PM2.5及PM2.5~10暴露均与哮喘症状及城市哮喘儿童医学干预明显相关。NO2则是燃烧的附带产物,燃烧使用家庭室内NO2浓度明显高于不使用燃气的家庭。城市住宅室内NO2浓度明显高于室外。在诸多美国城市家庭,燃气使用及燃气取暖相关普遍。相比PM,室外NO2几乎对室内NO2浓度没有影响。虽然只有一个研究证实NO2暴露至于非特异性城市儿童有关,但室内NO2暴露和PM一样与城市儿童哮喘临床症状显著相关[36]。
与美国城郊儿童相比,城市儿童哮喘的症状与二手烟暴露关系更为密切,美国城市约20%成人有吸烟习惯[37]。即使有研究显示,SHS暴露与儿童哮喘症状或其他哮喘相关的医学干预无明显相关性,但其他研究显示SHS暴露与儿童哮喘发病率关系密切,二手烟暴露与儿童哮喘及喘息发病率明显相关[38-39]。近期,英国的禁烟令导致了儿童哮喘患儿的住院率显著下降,这证实了二手烟暴露与儿童哮喘发病率的必然联系[40]。另有研究显示厨房有机染料的使用与儿童呼吸道疾病显著相关,这些有机染料的燃烧可产生大量固态或气态污染物。其中发部分研究均聚焦在发展中国家,多种替代染料的使用可大大降低室内污染物浓度并因此改善呼吸道健康[41]。
3 环境干预
即使目前已经成功绘制了环境污染与儿童哮喘发病率蓝图,更应该把精力集中在如何设计环境干预上来。环境干预是哮喘治疗的主要组成部分。有关这些干预因素的研究多集中在对某些特异过敏原的靶向干预,诸如蟑螂和大鼠过敏原,或二手烟暴露等污染因素。其他研究验证了多手段干预方法去裁定每个儿童哮喘患儿发病的始发因素。虽然这些干预的具体实施具有一定的挑战性。当室内污染暴露的降低,可使哮喘明显改善。
环境干预最成功的实例来自城郊哮喘研究,此研究纳入937例城郊特发性哮喘患儿[8]。在这项随机对照研究中,积极干预组接受为期1年的多手段环境干预以此评判受试者的敏感性及暴露情况。积极干预组中的患儿哮喘症状明显减轻,受试者的干预时间在原有干预时间上追加1年,哮喘症状的减轻程度与蟑螂和粉尘螨的降低幅度显著相关。这项研究所得到的最令人振奋的结果是:和对照组比较,实验组临床症状得到巨大的改善,而且这种干预所持续的时间远超过对照组。这项研究的强调了环境干预对城市哮喘儿童的实用性和有效性,也再次强调了联合环境干预措施治疗城市儿童哮喘的重要性。虽然这些干预并未包含与城市团体相关的所有因素,但至少一些干预因素对所有城市人群均应该采纳。
同时,也有很多随机对照研究研究室内污染物的干预措施。虽然城郊过敏研究委员会的研究未能证实室内污染物水准干预的作用,但很明显便携式高效空气颗粒滤过器(HEPA)是环境干预的重要部分,就像室内污染物(如PM)水平的降低可以降低室内过敏原的级别。另一研究结果显示,城郊哮喘患儿被随机分为2组,实验组接受多方面环境干预,同时设置对照组。干预措施与城郊哮喘委员会相似,增加了便携式高效空气颗粒过滤器的使用,室内PM2.5和PM10同时被测量评估[42]。结果显示,干预组中室内PM2.5和PM10的降低将显著改善哮喘症状。在一项随访研究中,身边有吸烟者的城郊哮喘儿童被随机分成3组[43]:(1)旨在降低受试者SHS暴露的行为干预措施和两个高效便携式空气尘埃过滤器;(2)两个HEPA;(3)对照组。结果显示行为干预措施的作用并不比HEPA好,而HEPA可显著降低室内
PM2.5和PM10水平,而且可以改善一些哮喘症状。综上,这些研究说明便携式HEPA不仅能显著降低室内空气悬浮颗粒水平,还可以改善哮喘的控制。虽然这些研究为个体化定制治疗措施与全方位环境干预为一体的治疗策略治疗城郊儿童哮喘的有效性提供了强有力的证据。但有一个问题仍然不明,针对主要过敏原的团体水平干预措施是否可以降低儿童哮喘发病率?不幸的是,多方面环境干预措施作为患者治疗的一部分的实施本身存在一定阻力,在美国这些环境干预措施未纳入健康保险是最可能的阻力。显然,因为环境干预对污染控制好处居多,但污染同时也导致哮喘治疗相关费用,从而保险不能为这些措施买单。虽然这些措施覆盖了一些欧洲国家,但并未全球范围内实施[44]。
4 其他改良危险因素及可疑因素
低收入、少数民族等附加因素可能直接或间接导致非对称性哮喘发病率。比如:体质量超标和肥胖现象在城郊儿童中比城市儿童更为普遍。约30%城郊哮喘儿童存在肥胖现象,而整个美国人群肥胖率只有18%[45-46]。即使体质量超标及肥胖对哮喘的影响仍未完全弄清,但它和其他严重疾病密切相关[47]。许多有关肥胖与哮喘的可能生物学机制已被发现,但这些机制并未得到深入的理解和证实。
另外,其他诸多超重及肥胖儿童的观察提示这些儿童对呼吸道污染物暴露更具易感性。体质量超标及肥胖儿童相比于正常儿童具有较大潮汐容量,从而导致了这些儿童呼吸道承受更多污染物暴露。肥胖可能与患儿所面对的诸如污染物暴露的氧合容量下降密切相关,以至于肥胖患者承受了更多由污染物引起的炎症的影响。因为肥胖与糖皮质激素抵抗有关,这可能使患者对激素治疗因污染物引起的验证反应的效果较差[48]。事实上,一些研究已指出污染物暴露与体质量状态存在相互影响。在城郊哮喘患儿研究中,较正常体重哮喘患者,PM2.5和NO2暴露使肥胖哮喘患儿症状更加严重[46]。一项我国的基于群体的研究显示体质量超标儿童较正常体重儿童对室外污染物暴露所致的呼吸道疾病更具易感性[49]。考虑到城郊室内高污染物浓度及超重及肥胖的普遍性,这可能是城郊儿童哮喘高发病率的可能原因。
城郊人群微量元素摄入不足。维生素D及叶酸可能是哮喘高发病率的潜在危险因素[50-52]。其次,城郊儿童维生素D和叶酸水平处于相当低的水准,因此这些微量元素可能导致城郊儿童哮喘病高发。贫困相关的社会心理因素亦是哮喘高发的原因。有限的经济来源、健康意识缺乏及有限的情感支撑是导致城郊哮喘的诸多贫困相关因素之一[53]。
5 结论
以复杂环境因素为特征的城镇是哮喘的巨大危险因素,这可能城市儿童哮喘高发病率的合理解释。尤其是,过去几十年的努力已经证实昆虫过敏原、污染物及贫困相关的社会心理因素是导致这部分人群持续性高发病率的主要因素。室内过敏原所致的哮喘发病率极具群体特异性,因此,需要更多群体性研究去鉴别目前所了解的最关系公关健康的过敏原。逐日增加的随机对照研究所揭示的基于室内过敏原及污染物且能改善哮喘的环境干预因素应该被纳入保险范畴,而未来的干预措施应聚焦于这些干预措施的优化。研究群体环境干预措施的有效性。
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More than two decades ago, a substantial disparity in asthma prevalence and morbidity among urban children compared with their nonurban counterparts has been recognized. Because of the characteristics of pest allergens, urban neighborhoods, such as mouse and cockroach,are present in high concentrations in urban housing and have both been linked to asthma morbidity. Moreover, there is a growing amont of evidence demonstrating that concentrations of many pollutants are higher indoors than outdoors and that exposures to indoor pollutants such as particulate matterand nitrogen dioxide are independently associated with symptoms in children with asthma. Although environmental interventions are challenging to implement, when they reduce relevant indoor allergen and pollutant exposures, they are associated with clear improvements in asthma. Other possible risk factors in childhood asthma that have emerged include dietary and nutritional factors. Obese and overweight childrenmay be more susceptible to the pulmonary effects of pollutant exposure. Insufficiency of vitamin D and folate has also emerged as modifiable risk factors for asthma morbidity in children. The identification of these modifiable risk factors for urban childhood asthma morbidity offers a ripe opportunity for intervention.
Environmental exposure;Childhood asthma
10.3969/j.issn.1009-4393.2016.9.006
新疆 8384400 新疆维吾尔自治区和布克赛尔蒙古族自治县人民医院儿科 (赵咏梅) 辽宁 124010 辽河油田总医院儿科 (刘凯)
刘凯 E-mail:Mingkun01@163.com