英语经贸语篇的隐喻研究
2014-02-05雷萍莉王志娟
雷萍莉,王志娟
(1.广东白云学院外国语学院,广东 广州 510450;2.广东交通职业技术学院 基础部,广东 广州 510650)
国外对于隐喻的研究由来已久,从古代的亚里士多德开始就有了对于隐喻的阐释,亚里士多德说:用一个表示某物的词借喻它物,这个词便成了隐喻词[1]。1936年Richards提出了隐喻互动理论,标志着现代隐喻学的诞生。1980年,George Lakoff和Mark Johnson共同完成的“Metaphors We Live By”(《我们赖以生存的隐喻》)一书,被人们认为是研究隐喻的扛鼎之作。在这本书中,他们提出了“概念隐喻”(conceptual metaphor)这一概念,认为隐喻是从一个具体的概念域向一个抽象的概念域的系统映射[2]。因此,这本书标志着基于认知观的隐喻研究全面开始。而系统功能语言学的创始人Halliday在其著作《功能语法导论》中提出了“语法隐喻”(grammatical metaphor)的概念,他认为隐喻是意义表达的变异,不仅仅是词汇的选择。
“隐喻在日常生活中是无处不在的,不但在语言中,而且在思想和行为中,我们用来思考和行动的日常概念系统,在本质上也是隐喻性的。”[2]很多语篇类型都包含着隐喻的应用,如文学作品、经济语篇、新闻语篇等等。下文将从概念隐喻和语法隐喻两个方面对外刊经贸语篇当中的隐喻式表达进行分析。
1 概念隐喻
隐喻涉及两个不同的认知领域的语义互动,其中某一领域被用来描述另一领域。被描述的领域被称作目标域(target domain),用来描述的领域被称作原域(source domain)。隐喻意义的理解实际上就是将原域的经验映射到目标域,从而达到重新认识目标域相关特征的目的[3]。喻体与本体的相似性是构成隐喻的基础,根据隐喻意义形成的过程和方式,Lakoff和Johnson将其分为结构隐喻(structural metaphor)、方位隐喻(orientational metaphor)和本体隐喻(ontological metaphor)三类[2]。在英语中,隐喻有名词性隐喻、动词性隐喻、形容词性隐喻、副词性隐喻和介词性隐喻等形式。
1.1 结构隐喻
结构隐喻(structural metaphor):是指用一种概念的结构去构建另一种概念,用谈论的一种概念的词语来谈论另一概念,通常是用域源(source domain)中具体的或比较熟悉的概念去类比目标域(target domain)中抽象的或比较陌生的概念。也就是说,一个概念是以另一个概念为基础产生的,这类隐喻植根于我们的经验。结构隐喻在经贸语篇中最为常见,因为在经济与贸易领域,有许多概念和活动对于大众读者来讲比较抽象和复杂,难于理解,而运用结构隐喻,将它们映射到我们日常生活中比较熟悉的事物和易于理解的概念上,就能形象生动地描述经贸领域的各种现象及其运作和发展。下面寥举几例:
例1Coca-Cola and PepsiCo don't wage mere market share battles.They fight holy wars.These days the fighting is on two fronts.One is on the vast plains of the cola business where the reformulation of Coke has Pepsi on the defensive.The other is in the back alleys of the smaller,non-cola market.Until now these have been dominated by other companies.(Soft Drink Wars:the Next Battle,Fortune,June 24,1985)
上句中将Coca-Cola和PepsiCo两个可乐公司的营销竞争映射到“battles”(战争)这个概念上,以战争的各种特征,包括作战(wage)、前线(fronts)、平原(vast plains)、守势(defensive)、巷战(back alleys)、占领(dominated)来描述其营销之争,非常形象生动地描述了两家公司市场竞争的激烈程度,易于理解,令人印象深刻。类似映射还有:
例2 For centuries,economic battles have led to some of history's bloodiest wars.(Economic Troubles Cloud New Market's Future,The Christian Science Monitor,Dec.30,1992)
例3 Domestically,sales of soft drinks have been bubbling along nicely.(Soft Drink Wars:the Next Battle,Fortune,June 24,1985)
此句中,软饮料的销售被隐喻为“冒泡”(bubbling),从而使得软饮料销售的一派繁荣景象跃然纸上。
例4 But perhaps the major reason is the dark economic clouds now hanging over Europe.(Economic Troubles Cloud New Market's Future,The Christian Science Monitor,Dec.30,1992)
上句中将经济描绘成“乌云”(dark economic clouds)笼罩在(hanging over)欧洲上空,经济具有了天气的特征,从而使读者能真切地感受到当时不景气的经济对人们心理的影响。我们也经常听到“financial storms”之说。
1.2 方位隐喻
方位隐喻(orientational metaphor):是通过空间概念,如上下、前后、深浅、远近、中心、边缘等来理解非空间所构成的隐喻,故也被称作空间隐喻。在人们的普遍观念中,“上”与“前”皆属正面、积极的意象,而“下”与“后”则为其负面。在经贸语篇中,这些原始的具体方位概念往往被投射于经济状况、数量等抽象概念上。
例5 The Great Leap Forward of 1958-1959 initially produced gains in agricultural and industrial production,but subsequently resulted in serious economic imbalances.(China in the Market Place,China Now,spring 1985,No.112)
例6 The central government's determination to raise the level of industrial technology is clearly behind the decision to open the 14 coastal cities.(The Curtain Goes up,Far Eastern Economic Review,31 Jan.,1985)
例7 As a result,the visible trade surplus rose sharply from US$1.4 billion in 1981 to US$4.4 billion in 1982 and US$3.7 billion in 1983.(China in the Market Place,China Now,spring 1985,No.112)
例8 The growth of foreign trade was disputed again during the Cultural Revolution(1966-1976)when agricultural and industrial productionfell sharply and transportation constraints became more serious.(China in the Market Place,China Now,spring 1985,No.112)
基于“The situation is a location”的概念隐喻,方位隐喻可被用来描述事态发展状况。
例9 As a result the world is now close to concluding the Uruguay round of GATT talks.That deal is admittedly far from perfect,a series of messy compromises.(Free Trade,with Luck,The Economist,Oct.17,1992)
例10 Clearly,China's economy is a work in progress,nowhere near realizing the potential of its billion-plus population.(Beijing Rising,Newsweek,Feb.15,1993)
1.3 本体隐喻
本体隐喻(ontological metaphor):是指人类以自身经验和生理实体为基础,把事件、行为、情感、思想等抽象概念转换为实体。这类隐喻包含三个次分类:实体与物质隐喻(entity and substance metaphor)、容器隐喻(container metaphor)、拟人化(personification)。
1.3.1 实体与物质隐喻
指的是把经验视作实体或物质,通过后者来理解前者,就可对经验做出相应的物质性描述,如指称、量化、分类,使其带上某类物质的特征,加以引申,进行推理,分析其相应的原因等。经贸语篇中,必然包含大量对经济现象及规律、政治问题及贸易运作等抽象概念的解释,而使用实体与物质隐喻就有助于人们对抽象的经济规律及贸易运作的理解和把握。
例11 A Clearly confident China has rolled up a large section of its bamboo curtain,declared itself“open to the outside world”and hung signs on nearly all its cities inviting foreign investors to come and do serious business.(The Curtain Goes up,Far Eastern Economic Review,31 Jan.,1985)
句子用“竹幕”(bamboo curtain)一词,一方面区别于当时冷战历史背景下的东欧各社会主义国家的“铁幕”(iron curtain),另一方面说明中国当时也处于一种自我封闭的状态,急待改革开放。这类隐喻在经贸语篇中不胜枚举,如将困境隐喻为“bottleneck”,将不完善的地方隐喻为“holes”,把态度强硬的人称作“鹰”(hawks),而将态度温和的称为“鸽”(pigeon)。
1.3.2 容器隐喻
就是把容器的概念投射到其他抽象概念,如:田野、行为、事件和活动等等,使这些本不是容器的事物具有跟容器一样的边界、可量化、能进且可出的特性。在经贸英语中,容器概念主要由in和out,into和out of两组表示空间的概念来体现。
例12 Boeing and Rolls-Royce will be paid in cash from the proceeds,and Saudi Arabia will get its aircraft without dipping into its currency reserves.(The Comeback of Ⅰnternational Barter,Reader's Digest,August,1985)
例13 Some of the Clinton administration's tough talk appears tactical,intended to pressure trading partners into offering concession and to unblock stalled negotiations on several fronts.(U.S.Ⅰs Prepared to See Trade Relations Worsen,Ⅰnternational Herald Tribune,Feb.18,1993)
例14 This should hardly be surprising as contracts worth more than$2,500 million have been let in the past 12 months.(Prosperity Persists in the UAE,Middle East Economic Digest,May 7,1993)
1.3.3 拟人隐喻
将人的概念投射到其它事物上,用人类动机、性
例15 If these products live up to their early performance in test markets-a big if-they could produce$3 billion a year in retail sales.(Soft Drink Wars:the Next Battle,Fortune,June 24,1985)
例16 The seven major industrial countries experienced a significant slowdown in GDP growth—from 2.8 per cent in 1990 to 1.9 per cent during 1991 as recession gripped Canada,the United Kingdom,and the United States.(The Economic Scene:A Global Perspective,The World Bank Annual Report,1992)
例17 One of the central justifications for the single market was its ability to create greater prosperity,but it is making its debut just as Europe traverses one of its roughest economic storms in years.(Economic Troubles Cloud New Market's Future,The Christian Science Monitor,Dec.30,1992)格、行为等理解非人类物体,这就是拟人隐喻。这种隐喻的特点便是,我们可以用人的概念来理解世界上其它事物和现象。在经贸语篇中,将经济现象和政策拟人化也不少见。
2 语法隐喻
以上所讨论的概念隐喻都是发生在词汇层面,所以也被称为词汇隐喻,而Halliday认为,隐喻不仅可以发生在词汇层,也可以发生在语法层。对每个语义形式而言,在其从语义层到词汇语法层之间的各种体现关系中,至少有一个“一致”的体现形式,除此之外,还可能有另外一个或一些被转义的“非一致”式,或称为隐喻式,这就是Halliday的语法隐喻模式观[4]。他还明确提出,词汇隐喻与语法隐喻的根本区别在于:词汇隐喻的本质是“能指相同,所指不同”;而语法隐喻则是“所指相同,能指不同”。名词化(nominalization)是语法隐喻的主要来源[5]。名词化的隐喻表达在经贸语篇中被大量运用。
例18 a.Yet,below the surface calm,defense is of great concern.The topic dominated discussions at the GCC summit in Abu Dhabi in December,and in February the government announced its biggest-ever investment in defense equipment at IDEX 1993,an exhibition held in Abu Dhabi.(Prosperity Persists in the UAE,Middle East Economic Digest,May 7,1993)
b.Yet,below the surface calm,Abu Dhabi is greatly concerned with defense.The GCC summit in Abu Dhabi in December kept discussing about the topic of defense,and in February the government announced that it would invest in defense equipment at IDEX 1993,an exhibition held in Abu Dhabi.
例19 a.The weakness of dollar commodity prices,combined with the decline of the dollar,is having an important restraining influence on inflation in many industrial countries.(Soft Commodities,Financial Times,July 23,1986)
b.Dollar commodity prices are weak,at the same time,the dollar is declined,which have greatly restrained the inflation in many industrial countries.
上面两组句子中,a为“非一致”的隐喻式,b为一致式,可以明显地看出,采用隐喻式表达的a句比b句的小句级别低,在相同的语篇内可以承载更丰富的信息流。不仅如此,例18a句中,利用“defense”和“the topic”两个物化名词作主语,使语篇更显客观化,而且,因为“the topic”即“defense”,使前后两句保持话题一致,相对于b中两句分别采用“Abu Dhabi”和“the GCC”作主语,使语篇衔接更自然。
3 结束语
隐喻由认知而起,又是认知的结果,同时又推动了认知的发展,这就揭示出隐喻在人类认知和推理的过程中所起到的重要作用,它对于人类认识世界、形成概念、发展知识、进行思维、做出推理具有至关紧要的意义[6]。上文主要讨论了认知语言学范围内的概念隐喻及系统功能语言学范畴内的名词化隐喻形式在经贸语篇中的运用,通过观察,我们发现,在英语经贸类文章中存在着大量的隐喻式表达。在词汇层,结构隐喻、方位隐喻及本体隐喻有效地将一些我们熟悉的概念映射到政策、经济及贸易等相对抽象、并且难于理解的领域,运用始源域与目标域特征的相似性及可比性帮助读者快速、高效地理解目标域的新信息,而且隐喻的精练、新奇和婉转等特征为增加语言的修辞效果提供了可能;在语法层的隐喻,尤其是名词化表达则使得信息密集程度更高,同等篇幅中可以包含更大的信息量,而且它也有效地保证了语篇的自然衔接和客观化。
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