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治疗难辨梭菌感染的新18元大环内酯抗生素非达霉素

2014-01-27黄仲义黄嘉骅赵永红

上海医药 2014年1期
关键词:药效学药动学万古霉素

黄仲义 黄嘉骅 赵永红

摘 要 难辨梭菌感染(Clostridium difficile infection, CDI)发病率正在升高,在有些国家已成为医院获得性感染主要致病菌之一。经典药物治疗是采用万古霉素和/或甲硝唑治疗,但近年随着甲硝唑耐药新突变株出现,临床对其处理日益困惑。2011年1月非达霉素获美国食品和药物管理局批准上市,为本病治疗开辟了新的治疗途径。本文就非达霉素药效学、药动学、安全性、药物相互作用以及临床应用进行了综合介绍,并对比了非达霉素与万古霉素在治疗CDI时药理作用等区别,供临床应用时参考。

关键词 非达霉素 万古霉素 难辨梭菌感染 药效学 药动学

中图分类号:R978.15 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1006-1533(2014)01-0050-05

以往难辨梭菌(Clostridium difficile, CD)感染者主要是住院重症患者与老年人,而近十年来CD相关疾病严重性与发病率均上升[1],并发现多重耐药、超毒力新CD株(NAPI/BI/027),并且该菌株感染频率增加[2-3],且在较少暴露于医疗单位的健康个体者中也常见[4]。此外,还出现该耐药菌株社区获得性CD患者[5-6];目前难辨梭菌感染(Clostridium difficile infection,CDI)已被认为是超过耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(MRSA)的院内感染[7]。

当前治疗CDI主要药物是甲硝唑与口服万古霉素,但此二者治疗后再发率高,初始治疗再发率约为20%~25%,再次治疗复发率可达50%~65%[8-9];且近年甲硝唑治疗失败率明显增高,因此SHEA(The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America)和IDSA(The Infections Disease Society of America)均推荐口服万古霉素作为CD严重感染治疗[10-11]。

由于CDI的严重性和高再发率,万古霉素又有其自身局限性,临床上缺乏其它治疗方法。2010年11月 Optimer 制药公司向美国食品和药物管理局(FDA)提出新药申请,应用非达霉素治疗和预防CDI及其再发。FDA于2011年1月和2011年5月先后批准非达霉素作为孤儿药用于治疗儿童CDI[12]及成人CDI[13]。本文拟就非达霉素临床药理及临床应用与地位作一综述。

1 化学和药理学

1.1 化学

本品系德干高原游动放线菌(Actinoplanes deccanensis)或桔橙指孢囊菌(Dactylosporangium aurantiacum)发酵产物,属于新18元大环内酯化合物。分子量1 058.04,分子式系C32H74C12O18[14-17],本品在体内可生成仍具活性的代谢物OP-1118。

1.2 药理学

1.2.1 抗菌作用机制

本品通过与RNA多聚酶结合抑制细菌增殖,大多数RNA酶有五个亚单位组成,由(α2ββ'ω)组成核心催化酶,另一个是σ亚单位,负责启动子识别[18],由于CD中的σ亚单位不同于其它细菌株,迄今,体外研究中未见其与其它抗菌药物交叉耐药。

1.2.2 微生物学

1)抗菌谱与最低抑制浓度(MIC) 本品为窄谱抗生素,对革兰阳性(G+)需氧与厌氧菌具有活性,包括肠球菌、葡萄球菌及CD。本品为杀菌剂,体外研究显示,本品对CD MIC90为0.078~2 ?g/ml,本品对CD MIC50远较甲硝唑和万古霉素低。此外本品对NAPI/BI/027突变株的MIC90与非突变株相同,其活性代谢物OP-1118与原药具有相似抗菌谱,但MIC值高于原药4~6倍[19-23]。

2)对肠道正常菌群影响 本品对人肠道正常菌群远较万古霉素为低。比较了本品与万古霉素连续治疗10 d对类杆菌效应,本品对类杆菌菌落计数无明显影响,而万古霉素125 mg 4次/日口服显著减少菌落数,第一天为7.4±2.7/g粪便,而治疗第十天仅为3.6±1.9/g粪便(P<0.03)[24]。

3)蛋白对抗菌活力影响 用肉汤稀释法评估了蛋白对CD抗菌活性影响,加入粪便样物质,非达霉素MIC值从1 ?g/ml升至4 ?g/ml,代谢物OP-1118从0.25 ?g/ml升至2 ?g/ml;但在治疗剂量下,粪便中非达霉素及其代谢物浓度高于MIC值,提示蛋白结合不影响此二者抗菌活性。

4)抗生素后效应(post antibiotic effect,PAE)作用 体外研究显示非达霉素对CD具有抗生素后效应,时间可从5.5~12.5 h,远大于万古霉素(0~1.5 h),这种PAE在非达霉素临床应用中起作用。

5)介质环境影响 对非达霉素在不同阳离子情况下进行了评估[25],在pH 6~8 及不同商售培养基pH 6.2~7.0 条件下,本品抗菌活性无明显变化;但在pH 7.9 时,本品对CD 的MIC 值增高8倍。故临床应用应关注肠道pH条件。

6)耐药性 尚未见本品体内耐药报道,也未见本品与其它大环内酯类抗生素、β-内酰胺类、林可霉素、氨基糖苷类、利福平等抗菌药物交叉耐药报道。体外应用连续传代法(serial passage method),对本品存在下CD自发突变频率进行了研究[21],结果显示CD自发突变频率仅为<3×10-8。对本品耐药的CD克隆株研究表明[26],耐药是由于RNA多聚酶β亚单位点突变所致。由此,非达霉素对 CD的作用点σ亚单位和β亚单位具有非常相似的特性。虽然CD对本品的突变频率低,但在临床应用仍需关注耐药危险性。

2 药动学

通过Ⅰ期志愿者和Ⅱ期CDI患者的药动学研究,得知本品的人体内药动学处置如下[3,26-27]。

2.1 吸收

本品口服吸收微量,健康志愿者以高脂肪饮食与本品200 mg同服,可使吸收下降,与禁食状态相比,本品及代谢物OP-1118的Cmax浓度分别下降21.5%和33.4%,但药时曲线下面积(AUC)无变化。现知此改变不具有临床意义。故本品可空腹服用或与食物同服。

2.1.1 峰浓

正常志愿者单次口服本品200 mg后,非达霉素及代谢物OP-1118峰浓分别为5.2±2.1 ng/ml和12.0±6.06 ng/ml。

1)疾病状态影响 CD感染伴腹泻患者多次给药,10 d后非达霉素与代谢物OP-1118峰浓与健康志愿者相比增加2~6倍,分别为2~179 ng/ml和10~829 ng/ml;第十天对非达霉素浓度与第一天相比,无明显变化,而代谢物OP-1118则较第一天增加50%~80%。

2)性别影响 女性与男性均服用200 mg/次,2次/日,连续服用10 d后,非达霉素及代谢物OP-1118浓度无显著性差异。

3)年龄影响 65岁以上老年人服用200 mg/次,2次/日,连续服用10 d后,非达霉素及代谢物OP-1118平均血浆浓度与中位值增高2~4倍,但不具有临床意义,故无需剂量调整。

4)肾功能影响 重度肾功能损害患者,在多次给药后,未见原药与代谢物OP-1118血浆浓度变化,这与本品主要经粪便排出体外相关,故肾功能不全者,也无需调整剂量。

5)达峰时间 本品口服后,平均达峰时间为2 h(范围1~5 h),原药与代谢物达峰时间相似。

2.2 分布

主要分布于粪便中,连续10 d给药后,粪便中原药与代谢物OP-1118浓度分别可达639~2 710 ?g/g和213~1 210 ?g/g,其分布特性符合本品药效学要求。

2.3 代谢

本品代谢主要由胃酸及肠微粒体酶水解生成活性代谢物OP-1118,而代谢物OP-1118比原药易于吸收,故体循环中主要为OP-1118。现知,在多次服药后,大多患者(93.5%)的原药血药浓度均<20 ng/ml,而39%患者的OP-1118浓度>20 ng/ml[27]。

2.4 消除

1)肾消除 在多次给药后,尿液中仅见0.59%原药,故肾功不全患者服用本品,无需调整剂量。

2)粪便中消除 健康志愿者单次服用200 mg或300 mg后,所给剂量90%以上经粪便以原药及代谢物OP-1118形式清除。

3)消除半衰期 健康志愿者单次服用200 mg后,原药消除半衰期为11.7±4.8 h,代谢物OP-1118则为11.2±3.01 h,二者半衰期基本相似。无肠梗阻症状患者,可采用临床每日二次给药方案,本品不产生药物蓄积。

3 药效学

Louie 等[27]在Ⅱ期临床研究中比较348例三个剂量组(50、100、200 mg/次,2次/日,10 d为一个疗程)疗效(观察标准与Ⅲ期相同)(表1)。

从Ⅱ期研究结果显示,本品临床疗效以400 mg/d(200 mg/次,2次/日)最佳,进一步以此剂量进行了Ⅲ期评价。

在Ⅲ期临床中,Louie等[28-29]对67个中心共629例进行了本品与万古霉素随机、双盲、平行、对照研究,所有入组者(表2)符合以下标准:年龄>16岁,腹泻(24小时内有三次不成型排便),CD毒素A或B以及AB均阳性。虽在24 h内曾接受万古霉素或甲硝唑四个剂量患者仍可入选。有下列情况患者予以剔除:威胁生命或暴发性CDI和CDI毒素引起的巨结肠症。三个月内超过一次以上CDI再发患者以及曾选用非达霉素等患者。所有受试者随机服用非达霉素200 mg/次,2次/日或万古霉素125 mg/次,4次/日连服10 d,以临床治愈作为主要观察指标,以再发率和完全缓解作为次要观察指标,具体标准及结果分别见表3和表4。

此外,Crook 等[28]收集的100个中心研究结果与Louie报道结果相似。

4 安全性

在Ⅰ期、Ⅱ期和Ⅲ期临床试验中对本品安全性进行了广泛评价,特别是Ⅲ期中与万古霉素进行了横向评价,在Ⅰ期和Ⅱ期中未见重要生命体征及实验室检查异常,仅见头痛、鼻漏及血清淀粉酶和脂酶升高各一例,且与药物相关性尚存疑。

在Ⅲ期临床试验中对本品不良事件进行了评估,并与万古霉素作了比较,二组最常见不良反应均为消化道不适,分别为25%与22.3%。严重不良事件分别为25%与24.1%,包括胃肠道反应(4.3%与3.4%)、感染(7%与9.3%),此外尚有低血钾、血钠、血磷症以及双相血糖事件。在两个Ⅲ期临床试验中观察到非达霉素消化道出血频率高于万古霉素(3.5%与1.7%)包括腹泻性出血和胃肠道出血。非达霉素周围血象白细胞计数下降也高于万古霉素(23例/564与11/583例)[28-30]。

从上述结果显示本品具有高安全性,这可能与本品药动学特征吸收少有关。

5 药物相互作用

虽非达霉素及其代谢物OP-1118是细胞色素P450(cytochrome P450,CYP)弱抑制剂,但现证实本品与CYP底物华法令、奥美拉唑、咪达唑仑等合用时对这些CYP底物无动力学改变。

此外,非达霉素是P-糖蛋白底物,也是其抑制剂,而其代谢物OP-1118是P-糖蛋白底物。故与P-糖蛋白抑制剂环孢素合用时,有潜在相互作用。现知,在服用非达霉素前一小时内使用环孢素可使非达霉素和代谢物OP-1118的Cmax升高。前者从5.20 ng/ml增至26.9 ng/ml,后者从12 ng/ml增至132 ng/ml。AUC分别增高1.9倍和4.1倍。

6 剂量与给药方案

基于Ⅲ期临床研究,美国FDA批准本品剂量为200 mg/次,2次/日,十天一个疗程,可空腹或与食物一起服用。虽未在肝肾功能不全者中进行临床研究,但由于本品药动学特点,估测肝损功能不全患者应用本品时无需进行剂量调整[29]。

7 结论

虽SHEA和IDSA推荐甲硝唑和万古霉素作为CDI基本治疗,但近年CD突变株出现及临床甲硝唑治疗失败率增加[31-32],万古霉素临床应用增多,会使VRE(vancomycin resistant Enterococcus)出现的机会增大[10],因此,非达霉素作为窄谱杀菌剂是治疗CDI的另一种令人感兴趣的治疗方法。且本品更具有低再发率,治疗轻至中度严重CDI与万古霉素具有同等疗效。结合经济学评价非达霉素可作为CDI基本治疗药物。

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(收稿日期:2013-10-09)

[23] Hecht DW, Galang MA, Sambol SP, et al. In vitro activities of 15 antimicrobial agents against 110 toxigenic Clostridium difficile clinical isolates collected from 1983 to 2004 [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2007, 51(8): 2716-2719.

[24] Louie TJ, Emery J, Krulicki W, et al. OPT-80 eliminates Clostridium difficile and is sparing of Bacteroides species during treatment of C. difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 261-263.

[25] Babakhani F, Seddon J, Robert N, et al. Effects of inoculum, pH, and cations on the in vivo activity of fidaxomicin (OPT-80, PAR-101) against Clostridium difficile [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2010, 54(6): 2674-2676.

[26] Gualtieri M, Villain-Guillot P, Latouche J, et al. Mutation in the Bacillus subtilis RNA polymerase beta subunit confers resistance to lipiarmycin [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2006, 50(1): 401-402.

[27] Louie T, Miller M, Donskey C, et al. Clinical outcomes, safety, and pharmacokinetics of OPT-80 in a phase 2 trial with patients with Clostridium difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 223-228.

[28] Crook DW, Walker AS, Kean Y, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection: meta-analysis of pivotal randomized controlled trials[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2012, 55 (Suppl 2): S93-103.

[29] Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection [J]. N Engl J Med, 2011, 364(5): 422-431.

[30] Shue YK, Sears PS, Shangle S, et al. Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetic studies of OPT-80 in healthy volunteers following single and multiple oral doses [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2008, 52(4): 1391-1395.

[31] Musher DM, Aslam S, Logan N, et al. Relatively poor outcome after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis with metronidazole [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.

[32] Pepin J, Alary ME, Valiquette L, et al. Increasing risk of relapse after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis in Quebec, Canada [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.

(收稿日期:2013-10-09)

[23] Hecht DW, Galang MA, Sambol SP, et al. In vitro activities of 15 antimicrobial agents against 110 toxigenic Clostridium difficile clinical isolates collected from 1983 to 2004 [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2007, 51(8): 2716-2719.

[24] Louie TJ, Emery J, Krulicki W, et al. OPT-80 eliminates Clostridium difficile and is sparing of Bacteroides species during treatment of C. difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 261-263.

[25] Babakhani F, Seddon J, Robert N, et al. Effects of inoculum, pH, and cations on the in vivo activity of fidaxomicin (OPT-80, PAR-101) against Clostridium difficile [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2010, 54(6): 2674-2676.

[26] Gualtieri M, Villain-Guillot P, Latouche J, et al. Mutation in the Bacillus subtilis RNA polymerase beta subunit confers resistance to lipiarmycin [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2006, 50(1): 401-402.

[27] Louie T, Miller M, Donskey C, et al. Clinical outcomes, safety, and pharmacokinetics of OPT-80 in a phase 2 trial with patients with Clostridium difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 223-228.

[28] Crook DW, Walker AS, Kean Y, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection: meta-analysis of pivotal randomized controlled trials[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2012, 55 (Suppl 2): S93-103.

[29] Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection [J]. N Engl J Med, 2011, 364(5): 422-431.

[30] Shue YK, Sears PS, Shangle S, et al. Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetic studies of OPT-80 in healthy volunteers following single and multiple oral doses [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2008, 52(4): 1391-1395.

[31] Musher DM, Aslam S, Logan N, et al. Relatively poor outcome after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis with metronidazole [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.

[32] Pepin J, Alary ME, Valiquette L, et al. Increasing risk of relapse after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis in Quebec, Canada [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.

(收稿日期:2013-10-09)

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