The Book of Poetry as the World’s First Research Report

Li Houqiang and Lu Jiaqiang

Sichuan Academy of Social Sciences

Abstract: The collection of folk songs and odes for the Book of Poetry (Shih-ching/Shijing) was in nature a social research project in ancient China. This paper studies the Book of Poetry as a research report, probing into the background of the assignment of poetry functionaries as researchers, relevant geographic information and time span, relevant social production and life, the logic of the research, and the social value of the research. As a social research report, the Book of Poetry is of documentary significance to various academic fields.

Keywords: the Book of Poetry, research report, social research

Social Background to the Emergence of Poetry Functionaries as Researchers for the Book of Poetry

The collection of folk songs and odes for theBook of Poetry(Shihching/Shijing) was in nature a social research project. There is a mention of specially assigned poetry functionaries responsible for this mission in “Treatise on Literature,” theBook of Han(Hanshu). It reads:

So in ancient times, there were poetry functionaries (caishizhiguan). They were commissioned by the ruler to collect songs and odes from the civilian society and were at the same time also responsible for gathering folkways and public opinions for the imperial court so that the ruler could know the merits and demerits of his governance and practice self-reflection and correction accordingly.

Such a social research project was conducted for the “submission of songs and odes to report the folkways.” Through a collection of folk songs and odes, the imperial government (the ruling class) could accumulate folk songs and odes. More importantly, it could gather information for their reference, so that they could adjust their governance. Art comes from life, and folk songs and odes echo the aspirations of the people. From folk songs and odes, the ruler could grasp the needs of the people, and improve his governance accordingly. There is a well-known verse by Cao Cao, a Chinese poet and statesman of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220). It goes like this, “Duke Zhou no leisure found by day or night; stern toil is his who would the Empire gain.” The verse is in praise of Duke Zhou (also known as Duke Wen of Zhou), who was willing to take advice, listen to public opinions, and uphold meritocracy. Duke Zhou also took ode collections as a major channel for gathering information.

TheBook of Poetryis the first anthology of realistic poetry. After its ascension into a Confucian classic during the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 8), it became known as theShih-ching(Shijing, lit. canonical poetry) (Zhou, 2002). Eager to grasp the needs and aspirations of the grassroots, the rulers of Western Zhou launched rounds of extensive collections of folk songs and odes, consuming huge amounts of manpower and material resources. There is a clear depiction of how folk songs and odes were collected in “Treatise on Foodstuffs” of theBook of Han(Hanshu). According to the depiction:

When spring came, people went to work in the fields. So, poetry functionaries (xingren) traveled around with a wooden clapper to collect what people sang while working in the fields…Then the poetry functionaries gave the collected songs and odes to the grandmasters (taishi) of music, who wrote music for each piece before they were performed for the “Son of Heaven” (sovereign).

It should be pointed out that the description about poetry functionaries (xingren) in the above quote is not accurate. In fact, poetry functionaries (xingren) were persons in charge of this social research instead of frontline collectors who were always on the move. Both poetry functionaries and grandmasters (taishi) in Western Zhou belonged to the official category (i.e., persons in charge). As recorded in Volume 16 of theGongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, “Childless men over 60 and childless women over 50 were provided with food and clothing by the government. In return, they were sent by the government to collect folk songs and odes among the people.” These frontline collectors spent years traveling across the countryside to collect folk songs and odes. In this way, they also managed to gather information on grassroots conditions for the imperial court. Their information was submitted level by level, “from township to town, from town to county, from county to vassal state, and from vassal state to the ‘Son of Heaven’ (sovereign).”

The assignment of poetry functionaries for this social research was recorded in theBook of Poetry, specifically, in an ode entitled “Huang Huang Zhe Hua” in “Decade of Luming” of “Minor Odes of the Kingdom.” It reads:

Brilliant are the flowers,

On those level heights and the low grounds.

Complete and alert is the messenger, with his suite,

Ever anxious lest he should not succeed.

My horses are young;

The six reins look as if they were moistened.

I gallop them, and urge them on,

Everywhere pushing my inquiries.

My horses are piebald;

The six reins are like silk.

I gallop them, and urge them on,

Everywhere seeking information and counsel.

My horses are white and black-maned;

The six reins look glossy.

I gallop them, and urge them on,

Everywhere seeking information and advice.

My horses are grey;

The six reins are well in hand.

I gallop them, and urge them on,

Everywhere seeking information and suggestions.

The “messenger” in the third line—“Complete and alert is the messenger, with his suite”—indicates the protagonist was a traveler (Tian, 2013). The so-called “seeking information and counsel” was the mission of a designated poetry functionary on an inspection tour. “Everywhere pushing my inquiries…Everywhere seeking information and counsel…Everywhere seeking information and advice…Everywhere seeking information and suggestions.” The recurring verses accentuate the protagonist’s assiduous pursuit of good advice. The depiction also shows how folk songs and odes were collected for the compilation of theBook of Poetryin an era with poor road conditions. Through such an inspection tour or field research, poetry functionaries could deliver the clearest voice of the people and gather the widest range of information as much as possible.

Geographic Information and Time Span Covered by the Book of Poetry as a Research Report

The odes in theBook of Poetryspan a period of 500-600 years, and were collected from across the Yellow River basin and beyond, including present-day Shaanxi, Gansu, Shanxi, Shandong, Hebei, Henan, Anhui, and Hubei provinces. It is generally accepted that all the pieces in theBook of Poetrywere created after the conquest of Shang (1066 BC) by King Wu of Zhou, so they date from the early Western Zhou (c. 11th century BC) to the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period (c. 7th century BC).

TheBook of Poetrycontains abundant geographic information, ranging from landscapes, phenological knowledge, weather phenomena, to settlements and ancient city sites, which present the geographical conditions and people’s understanding of the world during that period. It consists of three parts, namely, “Lessons from the States,” “Odes of the Kingdom,” and “Odes of the Temple and the Altar,” each of which has its own emphasis. “Lessons from the States” covers much more geographic information than the other two parts, and odes in this part fall into 15 state-specific groups indicative of their origins (Qi, Wei, Qin, etc.) roughly in present-day Shanxi, Shaanxi, Henan, Hebei, and Shandong provinces. Most of the odes in “Lessons from the States” were adapted from folk songs in the Yellow River basin. By contrast, the odes in “Odes of the Kingdom” and “Odes of the Temple and the Altar” mainly originated in present-day Shaanxi and Henan, where collectors once traveled around to have local landscapes and voices recorded.

For example, there is a depiction of the geographic environment in “Han Yi, Decade of Dang, Greater Odes of the Kingdom,” which is:

Very grand is the mountain of Liang,

Which was made cultivable by Yu.

…

Very pleasant is the territory of Han,

With its large streams and meres,

Full of big bream and tench;

With its multitudes of deer,

With its bears and grisly bears;

With its wild-cats and tigers.

…

Presenting his skins of the white fox,

With those of the red panther and the yellow grisly bear.

The exact location of Mount Liang depicted in the ode remains in dispute. Some scholars believe Mount Liang is in present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi province, while others identify it as present-day Mount Shijingshan in Beijing. Nevertheless, the local environment in the ode featured “large streams and meres full of big breams and tenches” a vast expanse of wilderness inhabited by “multitudes of deers” and “bears and grisly bears.” Such a vivid picture is sufficient for a basic understanding of the geographical conditions in the era of theBook of Poetry.

As for the influence of geography on theBook of Poetry, there is a view that all odes collected in theBook of Poetryare songs, and that the classification of odes in the “Lessons from the States” into 15 state-specific groups is, in fact, a classification of tunes, which is based on geographical conditions. Different regional cultures naturally give rise to different tunes. During the Pre-Qin Period (before 221 B.C.), exchanges between regions and states were infrequent due to poor road conditions and geographical barriers. In such a context, poetry functionaries designated by the imperial government had the rare chance to expose themselves to a diversity of regional cultures, accents, and dialects while they were directing the collection of folk songs and odes across the empire. As the territory expanded, local tunes and folkways of ethnic minorities, far and near, came into the sight of those poetry functionaries, who thus included them in their collection.

It is noteworthy that geography also affects the arrangement of odes in theBook of Poetry. Back then, geographic location was an indicator of a vassal state’s political influence. Of all the odes in “Lessons from the States,” a significant proportion came from states ruled by the Ji clan (kinsfolk of the royal family of the Zhou Dynasty), for which reason these states were placed high on the list. These Ji-descent vassal states were followed by states ruled by some clans who aided in forming the dynasty or moving the capital eastward (to Luoyi). The arrangement of odes in theBook of Poetryfollowed a geographical logic, which was determined by the economic and political strengths of related regions and states.

Social Production Covered by the Book of Poetry as a Research Report

TheBook of Poetryis a research report on the nature and agricultural society of the time, and a true reflection of the natural environment, agricultural production (crop growing), use of farm tools, and other factors concerning productive forces.

The beauty of theBook of Poetrycomes from nature, specifically from the flowers, plants, insects, fish, as well as lucid waters and lush mountains. A wide variety of plants can be found in the odes. For example, in “Jian Jia, Odes of Qin, Lessons from the States,” one line reads, “The reeds and rushes are deeply green, and the white dew is turned into hoarfrost.” The reeds (jian) here refer toMiscanthus sacchariflorus(not yet fully-developed) found in hillside grasslands and fringe wetlands. Their tender shoots are edible. The rushes (jia) here refer toPhragmites australis(not yet fully-developed) found in shallow waters and low-lying and humid areas. In “Qi Yue, Odes of Bin, Lessons from the States,” there are verses as follows:

In the seventh month, the Fire Star passes the meridian;

In the ninth month, clothes are given out.

With the spring days the warmth begins,

And the oriole utters its song.

The young women take their deep baskets,

And go along the small paths,

Looking for the tender [leaves of the] mulberry trees.

As the spring days lengthen out,

They gather in crowds the white southernwood,

That young lady’s heart is wounded with sadness,

For she will [soon] be going with one of our princes as his wife.

The white southernwood (fan) mentioned here is a type of sweetgrass known as “baihao” (Herba Artimisiae Sieversianae) in modern Chinese. Also, in “Cai Ge, Odes of Wang, Lessons from the States,” there are mentions of dolichos (ge), oxtail-southern-wood (xiao), and mugwort (ai):

There he is gathering the dolichos!

A day without seeing him,

Is like three months!

There he is gathering the oxtail-southern-wood!

A day without seeing him,

Is like three seasons!

There he is gathering the mugwort!

A day without seeing him,

Is like three years!

Such plants mentioned in theBook of Poetryare beyond count. Most of these plants seem to be crops or plants to be gathered as raw materials, with few ornamental plants. The fact that these plants are mostly associated with agricultural production triggers a shift of focus to the ways and means of agricultural production, and poses a series of questions about farm tools, working modes, and crops.

Judging from the descriptions in theBook of Poetry, agricultural cultivation was practiced in large groups during that era. This can be exemplified by one verse in “Zai Shan, Decade of Min Yu Xiao Zi, Sacrificial Odes of Zhou,” which reads, “In thousands of pairs they remove the roots, some in the low wetland, some along the dykes…” It can also be exemplified by another two verses in “Yi Xi, Decade of Chen Gong, Sacrificial Odes of Zhou,” which read, “Going vigorously to work on your private fields, all over the thirtyli. Attend to your plowing, with your ten thousand men all in pairs.” Both are spectacular scenes of collective cultivation. The “pair” (ou) mentioned above, meaning “plowing side by side,” was a tillage method usually adopted in large-scale agricultural production.

There are also a diversity of farm tools mentioned in theBook of Poetry, including new inventions, as well as common ones, such as spuds (jian), spades (cha), sickles (lian), knifes (dao), and small sickles (zhi). The tool “plow” (si) appears in two verses. One is “[Then] with their sharp plow-shares” in “Zai Shan, Decade of Min Yu Xiao Zi, Sacrificial Odes of Zhou,” and the other is “In the days of [our] third month, they take their plows in hand” in “Qi Yue, Odes of Bin, Lessons from the States.” Two tools, namely, spuds (jian) and hoes (bo), appear in the verse “to be provided with their spuds and hoes” in “Chen Gong, Decade of Chen Gong, Sacrificial Odes of Zhou.” Both of the “plowes” (si) and “hoes” (bo) were novel tools back then. The “plow” (si) was similar to present-day spade, while the “hoe” (bo) was for weeding. Crops frequently mentioned are millet (shu), wheat (mai), and paddy (li), with millet topping the list. Below are three verses containing millet (shu):

Large rats! Large rats! Do not eat our millet. (“Shuo Shu, Odes of Wei, Lessons from the States”)

There was the millet with its drooping heads;

There was the sacrificial millet coming into the blade. (“Shu Li, Odes of Wang, Lessons from the States”)

Tall and strong grows the young millet,

Fattened by the genial rains. (“Shu Miao, Decade of Du Ren Shi, Minor Odes of the Kingdom”)

Moreover, millet (shu) can also be found in other odes, such as “Xiao Wan, Decade of Xiao Min, Minor Odes of the Kingdom,” “Huang Niao, Odes of Qin, Lessons from the States,” and “Qi Yue, Odes of Bin, Lessons from the States.” Another grain, wheat (mai) appears in odes such as “Sang Zhong, Odes of Yong, Lessons from the States” and “Qiu Zhong You Ma, Odes, of Wang, Lessons from the States.” Principal grains aside, many other crops were also covered, such as sunflowers (kui), malt sugar (yi), and even spices. Sunflowers (kui) appear in “Qi Yue, Odes of Bin, Lessons from the States,” which reads, “In the seventh, they cook the Kui and pulse.” Malt sugar (yi) appears in “Mian, Decade of Wen Wang, Greater Odes of the Kingdom,” which reads, “The plain of Zhou looked beautiful and rich, with its violets and sowthistles [sweet] as [malt sugar] dumplings.” The use of pepper as a spice in the Zhou Dynasty is proved by one verse in “Jiao Liao, Odes of Tang, Lessons from the States,” that is, “The clusters of the pepper plant, large and luxuriant, would fill a pint.”

Plants were prone to be given new meanings in theBook of Poetry. Plants appear as symbols of people’s inner feelings and emotional changes, evoking a sense of fatality (Li & Li, 2019). Consequently, plants in theBook of Poetryare above being merely crops.

The content of theBook of Poetryhas significant social value. Its text offers a glimpse of agricultural production at that time. The extensive coverage also enables contemporary readers to better understand the social production and life back then. TheBook of Poetryprovides much material for the compilation of theHistory of Chinese Agriculture(Vol. 1, draft) published by the Science Press in 1959. The book covers several aspects, including the acquisition of means of livelihoods, the collectiveness of production processes, the performance of tools of production, as well as agricultural techniques and achievements. The chapter on agricultural techniques and achievements touches upon crop varieties, harvesting systems and methods, field techniques, skills in nursery operations, fishing and hunting know-how, and animal husbandry techniques. The agricultural knowledge in theBook of Poetrywas also summarized and included inA History of Chinese Agronomy(Revised Edition), published by Fujian People’s Publishing House. Specifically, the book covers the following aspects mentioned in theBook of Poetry; agricultural economy, farm tools, tillage methods, agricultural calendars, land use, soil cultivation, crop growing, field management, horticulture, animal husbandry, and sericulture. The introduction of agricultural knowledge from theBook of Poetryand the two works on agricultural development in China show that theBook of Poetrywas already used as a social research report to lay the theoretical grounds for the study of the history of agricultural development, and to contribute to the study of Chinese agronomy.

The social production described in theBook of Poetryis mainly restricted to agricultural production, for the simple reason that many working scenes are about agricultural production. Odes containing such scenes belong to “poetry on farm work” (nongshi shi) or “pastoral poetry” (tianyuan shi). Because of its agricultural coverage, theBook of Poetrybecame an important source of inspiration for later generations of pastoral poets. Tao Yuanming might be the one who revived pastoral poetry, but not the one who initiated it, as the history of pastoral poetry can be traced back to theBook of Poetry. And the earliest depiction of farmland in four seasons also comes from theBook of Poetry. In “Odes of Bin, Lessons from the States,” there is a detailed introduction to agricultural conditions in different seasons. The idyllic harmony reflected in theBook of Poetrygave rise to later pastoral poetry. For Tao Yuanming, theBook of Poetrymust have played an important role in shaping the style of his poems on an idyllic life. One example is “Shi Mu Zhi Jian, Odes of Wei, Lessons from the States,” which reads:

Among their ten acres,

The mulberry-planters stand idly about.

“Come,” [says one to another], “I will return with you.”

Beyond those ten acres,

The mulberry-planters move idly about.

“Come,” [says one to another], “I will go away with you.”

This ode reproduces a scene in which women were at work, feeling happy, contented, and carefree. A similar leisurely and comfortable vibe can also be traced in one famous verse in “Drinking V” by Tao Yuanming. It reads, “While picking asters beneath the Eastern fence, my gaze upon the Southern Mountain rests.” The “Shi Mu Zhi Jian, Odes of Wei, Lessons from the States” had already been a well-known pastoral poem long before Tao Yuanming created works on an idyllic life.

Social Life Covered by the Book of Poetry as a Research Report

TheBook of Poetryis an encyclopedia of the social conditions of Western Zhou, with themes ranging from politics, military service, love, folkways, and worship to music and rites. Its social life-related odes mainly concern political satire, military service, and love.

In terms of satire, the best-known ode is “Shuo Shu, Odes of Wei, Lessons from the States.” The ode comprises three passages, which respectively begin with verses as follows, “Large rats! Large rats! Do not eat our millet…” “Large rats! Large rats! Do not eat our wheat…” and “Large rats! Large rats! Do not eat our springing grain!” Large rats here are a metaphor for the exploiting class, signifying the working people’s resentment towards the exploiting class.

In terms of military service, there is a touching depiction in “Jun Zi Yu Yi, Odes of Wang, Lessons from the States:”

My husband is away on service,

And I know not when he will return.

Where is he now?

The fowls roost in their holes in the walls;

And in the evening of the day,

The goats and cows come down [from the hill];

But my husband is away on service.

How can I but keep thinking of him?

My husband is away on service,

Not for days [merely] or for months.

When will he come back to me?

The fowls roost on their perches;

And in the evening of the day,

The goats and cows come down and home;

But my husband is away on service.

Oh, if he be but kept from hunger and thirst!

Each of the two passages begins with “My husband is away on service,” bringing out the gist of this ode (Zhao, 2011). The depiction of a wife’s longing for her husband in service far away obliquely conveys the sorrow and suffering of the people brought about by military service. According to emotional experiences, military service-themed odes in theBook of Poetryfall into three categories; the emotional experience of righteousness, the emotional experience of grief and sorrow, and the emotional experience of resentment and sarcasm.

The Emotional Experience of Righteousness

The emotional experience of righteousness can be found in a number of odes belonging to parts such as “Minor Odes of the Kingdom” (“Liu Yue,” “Chu Che,” “Cai Qi,” etc.), “Greater Odes of the Kingdom” (“Jiang Han,” “Chang Wu,” etc.), and “Odes of Qin, Lessons from the States” (“Xiao Rong,” “Wu Yi,” etc.). In particular, “Wu Yi,” through repetitions of one rhetorical question, expressively highlights Qin soldiers’ heroic ambition and shared bitter hatred against the enemy. The ode reads:

How shall it be said that you have no clothes?

I will share my long robes with you.

The king is raising his forces;

I will prepare my lance and spear,

And will be your comrade.

How shall it be said that you have no clothes?

I will share my under clothes with you.

The king is raising his forces;

I will prepare my spear and lance,

And will take the field with you.

How shall it be said that you have no clothes?

I will share my lower garments with you.

The king is raising his forces;

I will prepare my buff-coat and sharp weapons,

And will march along with you.

The Emotional Experience of Grief and Sorrow

Military service-triggered grief can be found in odes belonging to the part “Lessons from the States,” such as “Ji Gu, Odes of Bei,” “Jun Zi Yu Yi, Odes of Wang,” and “Boxi, Odes of Wei.” Also, there is a large dose of war-weariness pervading in “Dong Shan, Odes of Bin,” which is about how soldiers pictured their hometown and family reunion with mixed emotions on their way home from military service.

The Emotional Experience of Resentment and Sarcasm

The emotional experience of resentment and sarcasm is echoed in “Bao Yu, Odes of Tang, Lessons from the States,” particularly such verses as “What will our parents have to rely on?” “How shall our parents be supplied with food,” and “How shall our parents get food?” The ode is about farmers’ resentment against corvée, a form of unpaid and forced labor which prevented them from doing farm work and supporting their parents. Another ode, “Huang Niao, Decade of Qi Fu, Minor Odes of the Kingdom,” highlights farmers’ resentments towards the exploiting class and criticism of society through figurative analogies.

In terms of love, there is no lack of enchanting love odes in theBook of Poetry. Below are some well-turned verses that have survived through the ages:

The reeds and rushes are deeply green,

And the white dew is turned into hoarfrost.

The man of whom I think,

Is somewhere about the water. (“Jian Jia, Odes of Qin, Lessons from the States”)

For life or for death, however separated,

To our wives we pledged our word.

We held their hands—

We were to grow old together with them. (“Ji Gu, Odes of Bei, Lessons from the States”)

Guan-guan go the ospreys,

On the islet in the river.

The modest, retiring, virtuous, young lady:

For our prince a good mate she. (“Guan Ju, Odes of Zhou and the South, Lessons from the States”)

O you, with the blue collar,

Prolonged is the anxiety of my heart. (“Zi Jin, Odes of Zheng, Lessons from the States”)

How lovely is the retiring girl!

She was to await me at a corner of the wall.

Loving and not seeing her,

I scratch my head, and am in perplexity. (“Jing Nü, Odes of Bei, Lessons from the States”)

Love odes in theBook of Poetrygenerally fall into four topics, which respectively are tokens of love, romantic meetings, love at first sight, as well as courtships and yearnings for love. On the analysis of these love odes, the traditional literary perspective only focuses on the words and sentences or the emotions behind them, but we approached the odes by taking them as part of a social research report as we attempt to shape a brand-new perspective which focuses on the aesthetic orientations and values of the people. Below is an elaboration of the four topics, including tokens of love, romantic meetings, love at first sight, and courtships and yearnings for love.

Tokens of Love

Tokens of love were mentioned occasionally in theBook of Poetry, particularly in the part “Lessons from the States.” Examples include papaya (mugua) and beautiful Ju-gem (qiongju) in “Mugua, Odes of Wei;” red tubes (tongguan) and white grass (ti) in “Jing Nü, Odes of Bei;” small peonies (shaoyao) and flowers of valerian (jian) in “Zhen Wei, Odes of Zheng;” plum-trees (mei) in “Piao You Mei, Odes of Shao and the South;” and scrubby oaks (pusu) and deers (lu) in “Ye You Si Jun, Odes of Shao and the South.” These tokens of love roughly fall into three categories: plants, animals, and jade. It is apprehensible to use jade as a token of love, as jade has remained a symbol of prosperity and good luck from the earliest times to the present day. Being subtle, pure, and translucent, jade has all that is required for delivery of sincerity between lovers or friends. Moreover, in ancient China, jade ornaments were symbols of social status, and therefore could be used as tokens of unwavering love and friendship. In “Nü Yue Ji Ming, Odes of Zheng,” there is a passage about how a man would give the jade ornaments he wore to whoever pleased his cherished one. It reads:

When I know those whose acquaintance you wish,

I will give them of the ornaments of my girdle.

When I know those with whom you are cordial,

I will send to them of the ornaments of my girdle.

When I know those whom you love,

I will repay their friendship from the ornaments of my girdle.

Except for jade, the other two categories of tokens of love, including animals and plants, signify the people’s aesthetic pursuit of simplicity during the Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century-771 B.C.). Again, examples include, plum-trees (mei) in “Piao You Mei, Odes of Shao and the South;” red tubes (tongguan) and white grass (ti) in “Jing Nü, Odes of Bei;” small peony (shaoyao/xinyi) and flowers of valerian (jian) in “Zhen Wei, Odes of Zheng;” and scrubby oaks (pusu) and deers (lu) in “Ye You Si Jun, Odes of Shao and the South.” These tokens of love reflect the spiritual aesthetics and views of love among the people of Western Zhou. In the view of the people back then, animals and plants were simple and unpretentious because they came from mother nature. They were used as tokens of love to correspond to the people’s understanding of beauty, that is, being pure, real, and simple.

Through the above odes, we can see what symbolized love in the Western Zhou Dynasty. By analyzing their characteristics, we can catch a glimpse of the aesthetic orientations and values of the people back then. In this sense, theBook of Poetryis indeed a social research report.

Romantic Meetings

Romantic meetings between young lovers were depicted in multiple odes belonging to the part “Lessons from the States,” including “You Nü Tong Che, Odes of Zheng,” “Shan You Fu Su, Odes of Zheng,” “Chu Qi Dong Men, Odes of Zheng,” “Dong Men Zhi Chi, Odes of Chen,” and “Jing Nü, Odes of Bei.” Through the depictions of these romantic meetings, a primitive and simple view of love is conveyed.

Love at First Sight

Love at first sight was unabashedly eulogized in many odes belonging to the part “Lessons from the States.” One example is, “Guan Ju, Odes of Zhou and the South,” which is characterized by popular verses, such as “The modest, retiring, virtuous, young lady: For our prince a good mate she.” Another example is “Ye You Man Cao, Odes of Zheng,” which reads:

On the moor is the creeping grass,

And how heavily is it loaded with dew!

There was a beautiful man,

Lovely, with clear eyes and fine forehead!

We met together accidentally,

And so my desire was satisfied.

On the moor is the creeping grass,

Heavily covered with dew!

There was a beautiful man,

Lovely, with clear eyes and fine forehead!

We met together accidentally,

And he and I were happy together.

Courtship and Yearning for Love

Courtship and yearning for love were expressed in some odes belonging to the part “Lessons from the States.” Take “Fen Ju Ru, Odes of Wei” as an example. It reads:

There in the oozy grounds of the Fen,

They gather the sorrel.

That officer,

Is elegant beyond measure.

He is elegant beyond measure.

But, perhaps, he is not what the superintendent of the ruler’s carriages ought to be.

There along the side of the Fen,

They gather the mulberry leaves.

That officer,

Is elegant as a flower.

He is elegant as a flower;

But, perhaps, he is not what the marshaller of the carriages ought to be.

There along the bend of the Fen,

They gather the ox-lips.

That officer,

Is elegant as a gem.

He is elegant as a gem;

But, perhaps, he is not what the superintendent of the ruler’s relations should be.

In a repetitive and gradual approach, the growing friendship and affection are appreciated by readers, and the elegance of “that officer” is presented. The same repetitive and gradual approach was adopted in “Jian Jia, Odes of Qin,” where the recurring verses of “I go up the stream in quest of him” and “I go down the stream in quest of him” help emphasize the protagonist’s yearning for and courtship of her beloved one.

On Folkways

In terms of folkways, “Qi Yue, Odes of Bin, Lessons from the States” is familiar to Chinese people. The ode ends with the following two verses:

The two bottles of spirits are enjoyed,

And they say, “Let us kill our lambs and sheep,

And go to the hall of our prince,

There raise the cup of rhinoceros horn,

And wish him long life—that he may live forever.”

The verses are about an ancient folkway to thank the gods with wine and lambs and to pray for blessings when the New Year approached. This folkway also involved a sacrificial rite. Odes specifically on offering sacrifices to the gods or ancestors belong to the part “Odes of the Temple and the Altar.” One example is “Qing Miao, Decade of Qing Miao, Sacrificial Odes of Zhou,” which was composed and recited in honor of King Wen of Zhou. It reads:

Ah! solemn is the ancestral temple in its pure stillness.

Reverent and harmonious were the distinguished assistants;

Great was the number of the officers:

[All] assiduous followers of the virtue of [King] Wen.

In response to him in heaven,

Grandly they hurried about in the temple.

Distinguished is he and honored,

And will never be wearied of among men.

On Rites and Music

In terms of rites and music, banquet odes are the best representation of this culture in theBook of Poetry. There are lively scenes in banquet odes belonging to the sub-part “Decade of Lu Ming, Minor Odes of the Kingdom.” Such odes include “Lu Ming,” “Si Mu,” “Huang Huang Zhe Hua,” “Chang Di,” “Fa Mu,” and “Tian Bao.” “With three cups you lose your memories—How dare you go on to more?” This verse, which ends “Bin Zhi Chu Yan, Decade of Sang Hu, Minor Odes of the Kingdom,” is about the “rite of three cups” (sanjue zhili) in theRites of Zhou. It is thus clear that the culture of rites and music is also covered in theBook of Poetry.

TheBook of Poetryis arguably a record of social history. Based on his study of theBook of Poetry, Hu Shih considered the odes in theBook of Poetrypopular lyrics or folk songs, rather than pieces of a Confucian classic, adding that they were true reflections of the times. Hu made it clear that “theBook of Poetryis not a literary canon” (Hu, 1998). Its sociological significance explains why numerous images and elements from theBook of Poetrycan be traced in later Chinese poetry. One example is the verse “The water in Jinghu is as clear as the moon, and the girl from Yexi is as white as snow” in “Yue Women III” by Li Bai. This verse is partly a tribute to “The moon comes forth in her brightness; how lovely is that beautiful lady”—the first verse of “Yue Chu, Odes of Chen, Lessons from the States.” Another example is a scene depicted in “The Bride of Jiao Zhongqing: Southeast the Lovelorn Peacock Flies,” which easily reminds readers of a similar scene in “Mang, Odes of Wei, Lessons from the States.” Below are the two quotes in contrast:

She started weaving at the dawn of day,

Worked at the loom until the midnight hour.

The tapestries beneath her fingers grew,

Yet Zhongqing’s mother sore berated her— (“The Bride of Jiao Zhongqing: Southeast the Love—lorn Peacock Flies”)

For three years I was your wife,

And thought nothing of my toil in your house.

I rose early and went to sleep late,

Not intermitting my labors for a morning. (“Mang, Odes of Wei, Lessons from the States”)

In addition, one verse in “Untitled Poem II” by Li Shangyin also corresponds to the first passage of “Dong Fang Zhi Ri, Odes of Qi, Lessons from the States.” Below are the two quotes in contrast:

The golden moon-toad gnaws a lock open: incense drifts in.

Jade tiger circles back, pulling silk rope to draw well-water. (“Untitled Poem II”)

The sun is in the east,

And that lovely girl,

Is in my chamber.

She is in my chamber;

She treads in my footsteps, and comes to me. (“Dong Fang Zhi Ri, Odes of Qi, Lessons from the States”)

In short, the vast panorama depicting the ancient social life that was unfolded in theBook of Poetryhas been an important source of information for later generations of poets and writers.

Development of the Logic of the Book of Poetry as a Research Report

TheBook of Poetryconsists of three parts, namely, “Lessons from the States,” “Odes of the Kingdom,” and “Odes of the Temple and the Altar,” each of which has its own emphasis. The part “Lessons from the States” mainly records the voice of the common people, speaking of love and courtship, farming and housework, homesickness, as well as political satire and protest. The part “Odes of the Kingdom” features political satire, with many odes composed by nobles dissatisfied with the political reality and the remaining odes for the use at banquets or in sacrificial ceremonies. The part “Odes of the Temple and the Altar” tends to praise the founders of the Zhou Dynasty and includes ritual or sacrificial odes.

The whole anthology shows an overall literary polish together with some general stylistic consistency and calmness. There is no harsh criticism or intense hatred. Even the satirical odes still sound harmonious and evoke no association of uprising or regime change. Thus, moderation is a defining feature of the language, which is manifested in two aspects.

Moderation of Content

Satirical odes, such as “Shuo Shu, Odes of Wei, Lessons from the States” and “Jun Zi Yu Yi, Odes of Wang, Lessons from the States” only reveal true intentions in a roundabout way. On the surface, “Shuo Shu” seems to be a complaint about how grains were stolen by large rats. But between the lines, large rats are a metaphor for the exploiting class. Such a metaphor adds fun and wit to this small piece while avoiding openly displaying people’s deep resentment. “Jun Zi Yu Yi” is a touching depiction of a wife who longed for her husband who was in military service far away. Yet, there is no trace of “a resentful wife marooned in the deep courtyard.” On the contrary, the overall tone is still full of hope and expectation. “My husband is away on service…My husband is away on service…” The recurring verse, like a soulful call for the beloved far away, weakens the sorrow and suffering brought about by military service, and creates a romantic melody. In this way, the ode achieves the effect of being harmonious, elegant, and refined. The charm of moderation lies in the fact that it softens all the odes in theBook of Poetry, including morale-boosting war odes like “Wu Yi, Odes of Qin, Lessons from the States,” making them gentle, refined, and touching, and bringing an air of easy assurance and calm to heavily armed warriors.

Moderation of Poetry Functionaries and Original Works

As aforementioned, there were specially assigned poetry functionaries responsible for directing the collection of folk songs and odes for theBook of Poetry. Did these poetry functionaries add in any of their own views while they were collecting and documenting odes? The answer is yes. Some subjective views were inevitably incorporated into the collected odes for modification or refinement. But such incorporations of personal views did not undermine the harmonious and soothing tone of theBook of Poetryas a whole. TheBook of Poetry, as the outcome of their efforts, reflects folkways while incorporating certain personal views. Overall, it is a harmonious and moderate work with no obvious bias.

Moderation and harmony, two defining features of theBook of Poetry, have a shared origin, that is, Confucianism. The intellectual bond of Confucius with theBook of Poetrybegan with his engagement in its compilation. That explains why Confucian ideas, such as “loving all humans” and “benevolence” can also be found in theBook of Poetry. By examining the culture of rites and music in theBook of Poetry, we discover that Confucianism is similar to theBook of Poetryin the sense that rites are highly valued. Confucianism is intertwined with theBook of Poetry. It is fair to say that theBook of Poetryechoes Confucianism, while Confucianism shares certain characteristics with theBook of Poetry.

Confucius himself was influenced by theBook of Poetry, which can be proved by many quotes from theAnalects (Lunyu). Below is one example from the “Xue Er” of theAnalects:

Zi Gong replied, “It is said in theBook of Poetry, ‘As you cut and then file, as you carve and then polish—The meaning is the same, I apprehend, as that which you have just expressed.’ ” The Master said, “With one like Ci, I can begin to talk about the odes. I told him one point, and he knew its proper sequence.”

The saying that “As you cut and then file, as you carve and then polish” in the above quote originally came from the first two verses of “Qi Yu, Odes of Wei, Lessons from the States” (of theBook of Poetry) as below:

Look at those recesses in the banks of the Qi,

With their green bamboos, so fresh and luxuriant!

There is our elegant and accomplished prince—

As from the knife and the file,

As from the chisel and the polisher! Another example is from the “Ba Yi” of theAnalects. It reads:

Zi Xia asked, saying, “What is the meaning of the passage—‘The pretty dimples of her artful smile! The well-defined black and white of her eye! The plain ground for the colors?’ ” The Master said, “The business of laying on the colors follows (the preparation of) the plain ground.”

The saying—“The pretty dimples of her artful smile! The well-defined black and white of her eye!”—in the above example originally came from the second passage of “Shuo Ren, Odes of Wei, Lessons from the States” (of theBook of Poetry) as below:

Her fingers were like the blades of the young white-grass;

Her skin was like congealed ointment;

Her neck was like the tree-grub;

Her teeth were like melon seeds;

Her forehead cicada-like; her eyebrows like [the antenne of] the silkworm moth;

What dimples, as she artfully smiled!

How lovely her eyes, with the black and white, so well defined!

Regarding the art of dealing with people, theAnalectsabsorbed the essence of theBook of Poetry, as manifested in the following two sayings: “Four horses cannot overtake the tongue.” “For one word, a man is often deemed to be wise, and for one word, he is often deemed to be foolish. We ought to be careful indeed in what we say.” Both of these sayings highlight the importance of being cautious with one’s words. Prior to theAnalects, a similar idea had already been expressed in “Qiao Yan, Decade of Xiao Min, Minor Odes of the Kingdom” (of theBook of Poetry), which goes like this:

Very grand is the ancestral temple—

A true sovereign made it.

Wisely arranged are the great plans—

Sages determined them.

What other men have in their minds,

I can measure by reflection.

Swiftly runs the crafty hare,

But it is caught by the hound.

Trees of soft wood, easily wrought,

Are planted by wise men.

The words of way-farers that come and go,

Can be discriminated by the mind.

Their easy and grand words,

[Only] issue from their mouths.

Their artful words, like organ-tongues,

Show how unblushing are their faces.

The ode tells how to screen and use speech-craft, which helped shape the understanding of Confucius concerning proper speeches, and lay the basis of his idea of “speaking cautiously.” The interpretation of theBook of Poetryopens a door to the world of Confucianism (Wang, 2016). A good command of theBook of Poetrymakes it easier to comprehend Confucian theories.

The compilation of Confucius concerning theBook of Poetryhas been traditionally seen as a positive deed. Yet, the real purpose of his engagement in the compilation was to make use of theBook of Poetryto better support his own theory. Given that, the compilation was bound to reflect his wish somehow. Accordingly, both the selection and arrangement of odes were to some extent under the influence of Confucius. Yet, it is precisely because of the involvement of Confucius in the compilation and promotion that has made theBook of Poetryso popular through the ages.

We should take a dialectic view of the relationship between Confucius and theBook of Poetry. On the one hand, the subject acts upon the object. TheBook of Poetrycontains Confucian ideas because Confucius engaged in the compilation, revision, and refinement of this work. The fact that Confucius used theBook of Poetryas a textbook also facilitated its popularization. On the other hand, the object reacts upon the subject. During the process of compilation, Confucius himself was influenced and nurtured by theBook of Poetry. To put it another way, theBook of Poetryhelped nourish his mind, deepened his philosophical realm, and eventually shaped his thinking. TheBook of Poetryand Confucius complemented each other and helped each other forward.

Social Value of the Book of Poetry as A Research Report

TheBook of Poetryas a research report contains an enormous amount of information. Its 305 odes cover comprehensive knowledge of Western Zhou, ranging from politics, economics, folkways, to military affairs. It is of great social significance. Politically, theBook of Poetryreflected the will of the rulers back then, and has become an important historical record for later generations to study the social production and life of Western Zhou. Economically, its coverage of agricultural development (crops, farm tools, etc.) is quite referential to relevant studies today. Its significance to folklore studies speaks for itself, and the views on love, marriage, and sacrificial rites are particularly worth reading and studying. Militarily, there are a number of odes on corvée, military service, and successful campaigns, which provide a different insight into how military affairs concerned the people.

TheBook of Poetryhas remained a focus of academic studies in Chinese history. Numerous sages and scholars, from Confucius, through Zhu Bin, to Hu Shih, have given their own interpretations of the work. Judging from their comments on the functional or documentary value of theBook of Poetry, it was recognized as a social research report.

In the Pre-Qin Period, Confucius became the first literary critic of theBook of Poetry. He attached great importance to the social and political functions of theBook of Poetry, and particularly valued “poetry-enabled education,” that is, giving full play to poetry in social development and education (Yan, 1985). According to “Zi Lu” of theAnalects, Confucius once said:

Though a man may be able to recite the three hundred odes, yet if, when entrusted with a governmental charge, he knows not how to act, or if, when sent to any quarter on a mission, he cannot give his replies unassisted, notwithstanding the extent of his learning, of what practical use is it?

As stressed by Confucius, to grasp the essence of theBook of Poetry, one is supposed to read between the lines, probe into the social context, understand the worldly wisdom therein, and adapt such wisdom to one’s own needs. This idea was later echoed by Mencius. In “Wan Zhang I” of theMengzi, he argued,

“Those who explain the odes, may not insist on one term so as to do violence to a sentence, nor on a sentence so as to do violence to the general scope. They must try with their thoughts to meet that scope, and then we shall apprehend it.”

The word “term” (wen) here can refer to form and the word “sentence” (ci) to content (Han, 1988). That “they must try with their thoughts to meet that scope” is all about seeing through the appearance to perceive the essence. More specifically, we should read between the lines of the odes in theBook of Poetryto perceive the deep feelings which the authors had and the hidden reality which they wanted to reveal.

In the Qing Dynasty (1636-1912), Zhu Bin studied theBook of Poetryto explore its social significance. He focused on the exploration of profound meaning, instead of sticking to traditional examinations of words and expressions. There are social and humanistic concerns in his argument. Zhu treated theBook of Poetryas a social research report, commenting on phenomena mentioned therein with empathy. Take one passage of “Zheng Yue, Decade of Qi Fu, Minor Odes of the Kingdom” as an example. It reads:

Look into the middle of the forest;

There are [only] large faggots and small branches in it.

The people now amidst their perils,

Look to Heaven, all dark.

But let its determination be fixed,

And there is none whom it will not overcome.

There is the great God—

Does He hate any one?

The passage argues that it is useless for anyone to resist the God’s will. However, Zhu Bin sensed an exhortation from this phenomenon, or voice of the people. He said, “This remark means that man by his efforts can conquer nature, not the other way around.” He believed that the God, whose will is unpredictable, always loves people, that God sends calamities to the Earth to make the ruler reflect on himself, and that a ruler in awe at natural phenomena should take the lead to behave properly and improve his moral character in order to turn calamities into blessings (Liu, 2017). To put his argument in a modern context, as nature offers all that is needed for human survival, man should hold nature in awe; in the face of a natural disaster, man should exercise caution and self-reflection to turn the tide.

In modern times, Hu Shih appealed to break with tradition by appreciating theBook of Poetryas a literary work and studying it from new perspectives of sociology, folklore, and history. He opposed the study of theBook of Poetrypurely from the Confucian perspective. Hu Shih has published a number of essays on theBook of Poetry, including “Commentary on the Campaign of Reading Confucian Classics” (“Dujing Pingyi”), “An Interpretation of the Word ‘Yan’ in Three Hundred Odes” (“Shi Sanbaipian Yanzi Jie”), and “Talking about theBook of Poetry” (“Tantan Shijing”). His sociological interpretation of phenomena depicted in theBook of Poetrycan be easily found in many of his writings. Take “Guan Ju, Odes of Zhou and the South, Lessons from the States” as an example. Its first two passages read:

Guan-guan go the ospreys,

On the islet in the river.

The modest, retiring, virtuous, young lady:

For our prince a good mate she.

Here long, there short, is the duckweed,

To the left, to the right, borne about by the current.

The modest, retiring, virtuous, young lady:

Waking and sleeping, he sought her.

He sought her and found her not,

And waking and sleeping he thought about her.

Long he thought; oh! long and anxiously;

On his side, on his back, he turned, and back again.

In Hu Shih’s view, the above quote is essentially about a social custom, including a man’s courtship of a young lady in primitive times, and it expresses the unknown author’s inner feelings. Hu denied this love ode to be shallow.

The sociological perspective was taken in the study of theBook of Poetryby overseas Sinologists, as well as Chinese scholars of past and modern times. Among those overseas Sinologists was Marcel Granet, who studied theBook of Poetrythrough a sociological approach in the 20th century. In the “Introduction” part ofFestivals and Songs of Ancient China (Fêtes et chansons anciennes de la Chine), there is a mention of how Granet borrowed the method of sociological analysis from the study of ancient Chinese culture to facilitate his study (Zhu, 2002). Granet pioneered a “field research” in theBook of Poetry. He took theBook of Poetryas a “folk field,” where he made a sociological analysis to interpret the social customs and folk beliefs of ancient China. In his work, Granet placed the themes of odes in theBook of Poetryinto three categories: idyllic life, rural love, and landscape (mountains and rivers), from which he discovered more about the politics, rites and music, folkways, religious beliefs, and other cultural elements of Western Zhou. In this way, he expanded the horizon of the study of theBook of Poetry, which had previously been restricted to the literary dimension, and started a comprehensive approach to it. Also, Klas Karlgren, a Swedish Sinologist, studied theBook of Poetryfrom the perspective of dialectology and published “A Study of theBook of Poetryand Its Rhymes,” thus setting a precedent for future studies in this regard. The perspective of dialectology or phonology has led to a new sphere of folk speech in theBook of Poetry, which is conducive to a more comprehensive understanding of the society of Western Zhou.

As a major ancient civilization, China has a long history of investigation and research dating back to remote antiquity. According to theBook of Changes(I Ching/Yijing), “In the highest antiquity, the government was carried on successfully by the use of knotted cords (to preserve the memory of things). In subsequent ages, the sages substituted for these written characters and bonds.” The quote is about data collections by primitive men and the initial form of investigations and research in China. According to theRites of Zhou, there were officials and clerks designated for demographics by governments at all levels (from central to local governments) and by patriarchal clans. A population census by region (urban/rural area) and gender was conducted on a yearly basis to register annual births and deaths. Every three years, an official research report on demographics was prepared in duplicate, with one copy sent to the government for the record. According to theBook of the Later Han, in the era of Yu the Great, tamer of the floods, the population of China was 13,553,923, and the land area was over 24.38 millionmu. This record is proof that as early as 4,000 years ago, population census and land surveys were already introduced across China. According to theArt of War(Sunzi Bingfa), research is the “magic weapon” for victory in war, because “if you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles.” As Shang Yang argued in “Elimination of Strength” ofShang Jun Shu:

A strong country knows thirteen figures…If he who wishes to make his country strong, does not know these thirteen figures, though his geographical position may be favorable and the population numerous, his state will become weaker and weaker, until it is dismembered.

Shang Yang considered investigation and research to be a prerequisite for national prosperity. For another major ancient civilization, Egypt, its earliest investigations and research can be traced back to the period of pyramid construction, which involved the collection and calculation of statistics regarding the labor force, availability of building stones, and many other considerations. Ancient research activities were at a simple, primary stage, and lagged far behind those in modern sociology and management. Nevertheless, they all have come down in one continuous line. As an ancient poetry anthology still popular today, theBook of Poetrywas compiled after a long process of collections, which was also a process of social investigations and research. Its completion marked a milestone for social investigations and research in ancient China. Its poetic quality does not overshadow its informational quality, but helps retain it through singing, making theBook of Poetrythe world’s earliest research report.

Conclusion

Confucius said, “The Odes (Book of Poetry) serve to stimulate the mind. They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation. They teach the art of sociability. They show how to regulate feelings of resentment.” TheBook of Poetryis not simply a poetry anthology in the traditional sense. Instead, it is an encyclopedia that incorporates sociology, which is full of valuable lessons gained by the superstructure of Western Zhou for more scientific and broader prospects. It is also a plotless epic, gathering the collective wisdom of the working people and illuminating their roads to inner peace. From the sociological perspective, theBook of Poetryis a “secret recipe” that enabled the ruling class to access the conditions and wills of the people, as well as the folkways. More importantly, this treasurable literature, which came from the work and life of the working people, is the world’s first research report jointly completed by the objects of creation and the subjects of research.