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《中西文明对比》选译(八)

2021-12-23梁昊审订/陈国华

英语世界 2021年12期
关键词:译文品格机器

梁昊 审订/陈国华

【譯者言】   对照本期所选文本机器译文和人工译文的译法,我们可以看到,英汉词典里没有恰当的中文对应词时,机器翻译仅会给出一个最常见的对应词,人工翻译却可以随机应变,想出一个现有词典里没有的对应词。首页里的coherence就很好地说明了这一点。这个词派生自谓词cohere,后者的基本意思是stick together。人正常说话或写文章,前言要搭后语,这就是stick together,也就是“连贯”。可是作为社会核心价值的coherence显然不是“连贯”。《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》提供的中文对应词仅有“连贯性;一致性”;《英汉大词典》提供的是“1. 黏合(性)2. 一致(性);协调 3. (尤指说话、写作等的)连贯性,前后一致,条理清楚;(文体等的)紧凑”;《新牛津英汉双解大词典》里是“1. 密切配合;团结一致;形成(逻辑关系清楚的)整体2.(论据、理论)连贯,前后一致”。这些对应词中只有“团结一致”沾边,但也不太合适。这时只要我们打开脑洞,稍微想一想自己会怎样表达社会成员彼此stick together,让社会具有怎样一种特质,“凝聚力”三个字很快就会浮现在脑海。此时我们不妨再查一下汉英词典,从反方向验证一下coherence与“凝聚力”是否彼此对应,就会发现“凝聚力”的英文对应词恰好是cohere派生的另一个名词cohesion。作为语言学术语,cohesion通常译作“衔接”。韩礼德名著Cohesion in English的中文译名就是《英语的衔接》,书中讨论的正是cohesion与coherence的关系,前者侧重话语如何在形式上stick together,后者关注话语如何在意义上stick together。经过这样一番对比,我们可以得出结论,cohesion和coherence与“凝聚力”具有对应关系。

不知机器翻译研究者能否让机器像人工这样自主学习,找出一种语言里的每一个词在另一种语言里的每一个对应词。

Moral Education in Today’s Schools:

USA and UK

Introduction

In the late 20th century, Western institutions of cultural transmission, families in particular, have become less reliable. Divorces, for example, undermine the ability of families to pass on the central values on which a society depends for continuity, coherence, and good order. Therefore public schools have progressively1 found themselves called on2 to accept unprecedented levels of responsibility for teaching in some formal way values which traditionally were learned elsewhere and much less self-consciously. This document summarizes a comparative study which examined recent governmental actions regarding moral education.

Terminological Uncertainties about

Moral Education3

There seems to be no one word which captures the nuances4 of the topic. In the United States moral education refers to the broad concepts of right and wrong. However, for some, morality refers to cultural standards rather than some higher values.

Values education is another term, but some have complained that “values” are what you get in a discount store5. “Values” in that sense have nothing to do with morality.

The term traditional values has been used to point to6 traits which have been considered valuable for a long time, though this phrase has become a political slogan to such an extent that it no longer communicates unambiguously7.

The term virtue suggests traits which have constant and ongoing worth, but the connotation of “virtues” in current American usage implies something old-fashioned and perhaps obsolete.

Ethics8 is another term which also has limitations. Ethics describe duties and obligations which are systematized, often into a code. Classes in ethics tend to focus on moral reasoning.

A more promising term which is being rejuvenated in the United States is character education. “Character” is “a reliable inner disposition to respond to situations in a morally good way9.” It refers to the moral qualities and ethical standards which make up the inner nature of a person. Behavior is a product of character in this sense. Character education holds to the premise that civilization has a common core of shared values, referred to as “universal values” or “public values.” These universal values are seen as rational, objectively valid, universally accepted qualities, actions and ideals to which people of all civilized nations can ascribe, regardless of creeds, races, socio-economic status, gender, or ethnicity. The concept presumes that there is a unifying morality, necessary for the preservation of any society. For that reason all social institutions should feel obligated to teach these universal values to children.

The current research consulted State Departments of Education in the United States and collected published information in the United Kingdom in order to find out how governments are becoming involved in character education.

United States

Though some states have no guidelines for this aspect of education, eight states (of the 19 respondents studied10) have passed legislation or policies requiring11 character education. For example, in California, since 1993: “Each teacher shall12 endeavor to impress upon the minds of the pupils the principles of13 morality, truth, justice, patriotism and a true comprehension of14 the rights, duties and dignity of American citizenship, including kindness toward domestic pets and the humane treatment of living creatures, to teach them to avoid idleness, profanity and falsehood and to instruct them in manners and morals and the principles of a free government.”

Four states (of the 19 studied) have enacted legislation to encourage character education. For example, in Iowa, schools are asked15 to make every effort, formally and informally, to stress character qualities16 that will maintain a safe and orderly learning environment, and that will ultimately equip students to be model citizens. These qualities include but are not limited to: honesty, responsibility, respect and care for the person and property of others, self-discipline, understanding of, respect for and obedience to law and citizenship, courage, initiative, commitment, and perseverance, kindness, compassion, service and loyalty, fairness, moderation and patience, and the dignity and necessity of hard work.

United Kingdom

The 1992 Schools Act stated that schools should “promote the spiritual, moral, mental, physical and cultural development (of its students)”. The definition of moral development refers to “pupils’ knowledge, understanding, intentions, attitudes and behavior in relation to what is right or wrong.” Students should “explore the place of reason in ethical matters and, as autonomous moral agents, acquire value-systems which are their own” (rather than simply transmitted by others and accepted uncritically).

The National Curriculum Council offers a list of moral issues: “School values should include telling the truth, keeping promises, respecting the rights and property of others, acting considerately towards others, helping those less fortunate and weaker than ourselves, taking personal responsibility for one’s actions, self-discipline. School values should reject bullying, cheating, deceit, cruelty, irresponsibility and dishonesty.”

“Pupils should be able to move from the taught morality which is characteristic of the very young—and an essential pre-requisite of moral development—to a position where their values and judgments spring from internal sources and allow them to be mature, autonomous, decision-taking and responsible individuals.”

“Such values include personal values in relation to the self, with reference to such aspects as self-awareness, self-confidence, self-esteem, self-control, self-reliance, self-respect, self-discipline, responsibility, relationships with others with reference to such qualities as tolerance, respect for persons and property, truthfulness, compassion, cooperativeness, sensitivity17, love; local, nation and world issues with reference to such issues as the individual and the community, rights, duties and responsibilities, war and peace, human rights, exploitation and aid, medical ethics, environmental issues, equal opportunities (sex, race, disability, class).”

當今学校的道德教育:

美国和英国

导读

20世纪末,西方的文化传承机构,尤其是家庭,已经不那么可靠了。例如,离婚会削弱家庭传承核心价值观的能力,而社会只有依靠这些价值观才得以延续,才有凝聚力和良好秩序。因此公立学校日益发现自己要承担前所未有的责任,以某种正式途径传授那些以往人们在其他地方不经意就获得的价值观。有一项比较研究调查了政府最近在道德教育方面采取的措施,下面这份文件总结了这项研究的发现。

有关道德教育术语上的

不确定性

英语里似乎没有哪个词能传达出这一话题的微妙之处。在美国,道德教育指有关是与非的宽泛概念。然而,对某些人来说,道德指文化标准而不是某些更高的价值观。

价值观教育是另一术语,但有些人抱怨说“价值”是人们在折扣店里得到的。那种意义上的“价值”与道德毫无关系。

传统价值这一术语一直被用来指称长期以来被视为有价值的特性,不过这个短语早已成为一个滥用的政治口号,不再能清清楚楚地传达意思。

美德这一术语表示具有恒定而且持续品质的那些特征,但是在当今美国英语的用法里,“美德”的联想义暗指某种老式甚至或许过时的东西。

伦理是另一个同样有局限性的术语。伦理学描述系统化的责任和义务,经常形成一套准则。伦理学课往往专注道德推理。

一个比较有前途而且正在美国重新焕发青春的术语是品格教育。“品格”即“一种可靠的内在秉性,让人以一种合乎道德的良好方式应对各种情况”,指构成一个人内在本质的道德品质和伦理标准。在这个意义上,行为即品格的产物。品格教育坚守的前提是,人类文明有一个共享价值观的共核,称为“普遍价值观”或“公共价值观”。这些普遍价值观被视为理性的、客观上成立的、普遍接受的品质、行为和理想,所有文明国家之人,不论宗派、人种、社会经济地位、性别或民族,全都认同。这一概念预设存在一种任何社会的存续所必须的一元化道德。因此,所有社会机构都应感到有义务将这些普遍价值观传授给儿童。

为了了解政府如何参与品格教育,本研究咨询了美国各州的教育部,并收集了英国公布的信息。

美国

尽管有些州没有为品格教育制定指导方针,在本研究中,对我们有回应的19个州中有8个已经通过立法或制定政策,要求实施品格教育。例如,加利福尼亚州自1993年起规定:“每位教师都要努力让学生们牢记道德、真理、正义、爱国主义等原则,让他们真正理解美国公民的权利、职责和尊严,包括善待家养宠物并以人道精神对待生灵,教导他们不游手好闲,不污言秽语,不欺诈作假,教会他们举止得体、品德高尚,指导他们了解自由政府的构建原则。”

所研究的19个州中有4个已通过立法鼓励实施品格教育。例如,艾奥瓦州要求学校以正式和非正式方式不遗余力地加强品格素质的培养,以维持安全有序的学习环境,并最终将学生塑造成模范公民。这些素质包括但不限于:诚信,责任心,对他人人身和财产的尊重和爱护,自律,对法律的理解、尊重和服从,以及公民意识,勇气,主动性,奉献精神,坚持不懈,善良,同情心,服务和忠诚,公正,有节制和耐心,还有勤奋工作的尊严和必要性。

英国

1992年通过的《学校法》规定学校应当“促进(学生的)精神、道德、心智、身体和文化的发展”。道德发展的定义是指“学生对有关是非的知识、理解、意图、态度和行为”。学生应当“探索理性在伦理问题中的地位,应作为自主的道德行为者获得自己的价值体系”(而不是那种单纯由他人传授而自己不加批判就接受的价值体系)。

国家课程理事会列举了一系列道德议题:“学校的价值观应当包括说实话,守承诺,尊重他人的权利和财产,待人体贴,帮助那些不如我们幸运而且弱于我们的人,自己做事自己担当,能自律。学校的价值观应当拒绝恃强凌弱、作弊、欺诈、残忍、不负责任和不诚实。”

“学生应当从他人教导的道德(这是幼童特有的道德,而且是道德发展的一个基本先决条件)达到一种发自内心的价值观和判断,指学生的价值观和判断源于内在,让他们成为成熟、自主、有决断力和负责任的个人。”

“这类价值观包括与自我有关的个人价值观,指自我意识、自信、自尊、自控、自立、自重、自律、责任心等方面;包括与他人的关系,指宽容、尊重他人及其财产、诚信、有同情心、合作、体恤和爱等方面;包括与当地、国家和世界有关的议题,指个人与社区、权利、义务与责任、战争与和平、人权、开发与援助、医学伦理、环境议题、机会均等(性别、人种、残障、阶级)等方面的议题。”

*北京外国语大学教师。

**广西师范大学教授、漓江学者,北京外国语大学教授、长青学者。

1 progressively的意思是in a progressive manner,“译者言”里提到的三种词典为progressive提供的中文对应词分别是:“1. 进步的;先进的;开明的 2. 稳步的;逐步的;稳定发展的” (《牛津高阶》); “1. 进步的,先进的;改革的,革新的 2. 向前进的;前进中的,发展中的3. 渐次的,逐渐的;循序渐进的;累进的;(疾病、暴力等)愈来愈严重的”(《新英汉》); “1. 进步的,先进的;逐步的,渐次的2. (疾病等)进行性的,愈来愈严重的3. (税制、税种)累进的”(《新牛津》)。里面都有“逐步,逐渐”,因此机器译文的“逐渐”有据可依,不过“逐渐”与gradually的意思更相近,不够精确。这里progressively的意思更接近于increasingly,即“日益;愈来愈”。  2 called on:Google Translate(GT)的“要求”让人误以为是学校主动请缨,DeepL Translator(DL)的“必须”未能传达出被动的意思。这里用一个“要”字涵盖“被要求”的意思。  3 moral education的机器译文都是“德育”,然而这里moral的意思既不是“德行(virtue)”意义上的“德”,也不等于 “政治思想和道德品质的教育”中的“政治思想和道德品质”(《现代汉语词典》“德育”条下),只能按moral education在英语国家语境里的意思,译成“道德教育”。此外,在討论一个英文词或短语本身的形式和意义时,通常用斜体将之与正文的其他文字区别开来;与之对应,中文最好也用另一种字体将这些字或短语与正文区别开来。机器似乎还不知道如何处理斜体的这种用法。

4 机器译文将nuances译成“细微差别”。既然是“差别”,就应说明是与什么的差别,可是上下文并没有对比的对象。  5同样是复数,values在上一段里指“价值观”,这里指“价值”,因为顾客在折扣店里买到的不是价值观,而是以较少的钱得到的高价值商品。GT误译成“‘价值观’就是你在折扣店里得到的东西”;DL误译成“‘价值观’是你在折扣店买到的东西”。  6 point to即refer to。GT的“指代”和DL的“指向”都不太准确。  7这里的to such an extent 隐含使用过度的意思,译文将这一隐含义表达为“滥用”,将communicates unambiguously译成“清清楚楚”。GT的“其程度已使其不再明确地传达”令人完全不知其所云,DL的“以至于它不再能明确地传达信息”同样让人摸不着头脑。  8 ethics既可以指“伦理”,又可以指“伦理学”,译文须视情况而定。

9“to respond … way”是disposition的后置修饰语。为了避免译文的名词中心语前附带过长的修饰语,机器译文都沿袭了原文的语序,GT的译法是“内在性格,能够以道德良好的方式应对情况”;DL的译法是“内在倾向,以道德上良好的方式应对各种情况”。鉴于这种译法使得“应对”缺少对象,译文可增加“让人”二字。

10 19 respondents studied 字面意思是“19个所研究的回应州”(机器翻译都将respondents译成常见但不恰当的“受访者”)。由于这样行文意思比较绕,我们将这个短语拆分成“在本研究中,19个对我们有回应的州”。  11 GT的“通过了要求……的立法或政策”不如DL的“通过立法或政策要求进行……”。为了改进搭配,我们在“政策”前面增加了“制定”,又在“要求”之后增加了“实施”。  12 shall 这个情态谓词,如果主语是第一人称,表达的是其意志;如果是其他人称,则表示言者对句子主语的要求,中文与之最接近的对应词是“要”。严格地说,机器译文的“应”对应的是should,语力略显不足。  13 “impress … principles of”的机器译文“在学生心中留下……的原则”就是我们平时说的“让学生们牢记……的原则”。  14 a true comprehension of本来是前面谓词impress的第二个宾语(第一个是“the principles of …”),可是译成“让学生牢记……的原则”和“对……的真正理解”不如将名词comprehension当作谓词来处理,译成“让他们真正理解”。  15 机器译文“在艾奥瓦州,学校被要求”读起来很生硬,不妨译成主动句“艾奥瓦州要求学校”。

16 stress有时对应“强调”,有时对应“加强”,这里应该是后者;character qualities指“品格素质”,为了与“加强”搭配,这里在“素质”之后添加“培养”一词。GT的“品格品质”或DL的“人格品质”都不太贴切。

17 sensitivity指“体恤他人的需要和情感”(见Merriam-Webster在线词典sensitivity n. e.)。机器译文都是“敏感”,在这里不恰当。

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