The Early Stages of Kyrgyz Ethnicity and Statehood (201 BCE-10th Century CE)

Tyntchtykbek Tchoroev (Chorotegin)

Foreword

In 2002 the Kyrgyz Republic (Kyrgyzstan) officially marked the 2200th anniversary of the first mention of ancient Kyrgyz (Kirghiz) statehood, a date also marked by the UN and UNESCO. It was tied to the mention of the Kyrgyz peopleaÇorotegin Tınçtıkbek, Kırgız Devletinin Olu umu: Eski Ça Ve Erken Orta Ça, pp.61-76; Yakhontov, S. E., “The Earlier References to the Name Kyrgyz”, pp.110-118.in early Chinese historical records in the context of political events in Inner and Central Asia during the rise of the nomadic Hun (Xiongnu) empire at the end of the 3rd century BCE.bTursun, Jarkyn, “Between the Kyrgyz Khaganate and the Tang Dynasty: Kyrgyz rulers (khagans), chieftains, chief ministers, chancellors,generals and envoys in Chinese historical records (circa 7th to 9th centuries)”, pp.76-93.

In 2012 the Kyrgyz Republic officially celebrated the 1170th anniversary of the Great Kyrgyz Khaganate which was an important stage in the development of Kyrgyz statehood in the early medieval period.

One must stress the fact that post-Soviet historians and Kyrgyz officials have moved away from the old idea that Kyrgyz statehood was allegedly “established solely thanks to the 1917 October Revolution”.cChorotegin (Tchoroev) T., Historiography of Post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan, pp.351- 374.

Some Soviet historians did point out that the ancient and early medieval history of the Kyrgyz people had not been adequately researched. For example, the Kyrgyz geographer Sadybakas Omurzakov claimed in the early 1990s that the “Kyrgyz” ethnonym was first mentioned in ancient Chinese sources and that its 2200th anniversary must be celebrated.In the Soviet era of perestroika, Arslan Koichiev, a member of the Association of Young Historians of Kyrgyzstan who was not only publishing scholarly monographs but also writing historical novels, claimed that the “Kyrgyz” ethnonym’s 2200th anniversary must be celebrated in the year 2000. A Chinese ethnic Kyrgyz historian Anvar Baitur also wrote that Kyrgyz statehood and the history of the Kyrgyz people have deep ancient historic roots.aBaytur, Anvar. The Lectures on the Kyrgyz History (in Kyrgyz). Bishkek, Uchkun, 1992. Vol. 1.

A renowned Chinese historian, Professor Yu Taishan recently has suggested that the very ancient form of the ethnic name of the Kyrgyz would be as “Juanhan 鄄韓” [kiwən-hean]. It might be related to the era of the Western Zhou 周dynasty (circa 1045-771 BCE).

Thus, the ethnic forms Gekun 鬲昆and Jiankun 堅昆, which were mentioned by the Chinese historians during the arly Han dynasty era (i.e. in Shiji 史記by Sima Qian and Hanshu 漢書by Ban Gu), had followed the previous form of Juanhan 鄄韓.bYu Taishan. A Note on The Geographical Location of Jiankun (An article in this volume); Yu Taishan. A Concise Commentary on the“Memoir on the Western Regions” in the Official History Books…, 2014, pp.170-199, note 98 at p.199; etc. See also some criticism on the“folk-history” approach: Chorotegin T., 2219 Years On from the Events Related to the First Mention... .

Consequently, it is important to study questions related to the establishment and development of Kyrgyz statehood in the ancient and early medieval periods in accordance with historical sources and in an objective way.

Historical Common Space

Kyrgyz (Kirghiz) history can be traced back to the ancient Western Zhou and Xiongnu(Hun) epochs, and monuments from this era demonstrate that the ancient Kyrgyz lived in the north-western area of Inner Asia known as Eastern Tengir-Too (however, Professor Yu Taishan has suggested the Altai mountains’ area as their ancient motherland), although it must be pointed out that Kyrgyz historians have still not studied this question in relation to the following geographical contexts: Heilongjiang, Baikal, Ordos, and Kyrgyz-Nor in the east; Siberia and Altai in the north; Tibet in the south; and the northern mountainous areas of Afghanistan, Transoxiana and the banks of the Volga (Atil) River in the west. When looking at the historical atlas, it is important to point out that there are many different views regarding these locales and the ethnic ties of people within the much wider context of Eurasia.

Moreover, when looking at toponyms, we must be mindful of the fact that those used today often vastly differ in connotation from what they referred to in a totally different historical period. For example, the mountainous regions of Sayan and Altai have a shared ancient history, yet nowadays the Southern Siberian mountainous zones are divided into the territories of neighboring autonomous republics within the Russian Federation. However, this should not obscure the unified ancient history of these mountainous regions.

The vast steppes belonging to the medieval “Dasht-i Qypchaq (Kipchak)” peoples,for example, are at present part of numerous polities. Disregarding the close historical connections between the Sayan and Altai mountain territories, the earlier Russian and Soviet scholars A. Mokeev, S. Klyashtornyi, and V. Ploskih artificially distanced the Sayan region (now a part of the Republic of Khakassia within the Russian Federation) from the mountainous Altai Republic and Mongolian Altai regions, which was effectively an attempt in the old Soviet era attempt to diminish the territories controlled by the ancestors of the Kyrgyz (Kirghiz) in the ancient and early medieval periods. This idea was perpetuated in the official Soviet historical view of the 1980s which alleged that not only the ethnonym “Kyrgyz”but also the Kyrgyz people themselves migrated from the Altai and Sayan regions into the current territory of Kyrgyzstan in the 15th century.aPloskih V. M., Short Historical Excursion of the Kyrgyz and Kyrgyzstan, p.48; Mokeev A. M., The Kyrgyz in Altai...; see criticism:Chorotegin T., Historiography of Post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan, pp.351- 374; The Kyrgyzstan History, 2016.

The Ancient Homeland of the Kyrgyz

In the ancient epoch, from the end of the 3rd century BCE written sources mention the existence of the Kyrgyz people and their homeland. See: Sima Qian (c. 145 or 135-86 BCE),Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian).bBichurin N. Ya., Collection of Information on Peoples in Central Asia, 1950, Vol. 1, p. 50; Butanayev, V. Ya., The Yenisei Kyrgyz State during the Old Turkic and Mongolian Epochs, Bishkek, 2016, p.63.Indeed, we learn from Chinese chronicles that General Li Ling (134-74 BCE) became the governor of Kyrgyz land on behalf of the Hun(Xiongnu) king in the early 1st century BCE. Li Ling was the grandson of the Han general Li Guang (d. 119 BCE), whom the Tang imperial family later claimed as their ancestor.cSee: Tursun, Jarkyn, Between the Kyrgyz Khaganate and the Tang Dynasty, p.79, note 29.

Historians have proposed numerous contradictory views regarding the homeland of the ancient Kyrgyz polity. For example, some authors claim that ancient Kyrgyz statehood was established in the Upper Yenissei region, whereas others state that it was in north-western Mongolia around Khyargas Nuur (“Kyrgyz Lake”), while recently some historians suggest that the ancient Kyrgyz lived in the mountainous and desert areas close to the Borohoro Shan mountains (in the eastern part of the Tianshan mountain range in what is today the Xinjiang-Uygur Autonomous Region of China).aButanayev V. Ya., The Yenisei Kyrgyz State during the Old Turkic and Mongolian Epochs, pp.63-64; Khudiakov Yu. S., The Warfare Art of the Kyrgyz, Bishkek, 2017, pp.57-60; Chorotegin T. K., A Concise History of the Kyrgyz, Bishkek, 2011, pp.157-195. See also:Bartold V. V., The Kyrgyz, 1963, pp.471- 543; Tchoroev T. K., Tengir-Too (Tian-Shan) as the region..., 1995, pp.14-16.

Ban Gu (32-92 CE), the ancient Chinese historian of the Han Dynasty, wrote in his Hanshu (Book of Han) that: “There is the horde of the Xiongnu who settled about 7,000 li to the east of [the location] of the Kyrgyz”. The modern Russian archaeologist Professor Juli Sergeevich Khudiakov (b. 1947), the sinologist Lyudmila Akimovna Borovkova (1930-2011),and several modern Kyrgyz historians have used this source to claim that the ancient Kyrgyz people had settled in the Eastern Tengir-Too region in the 1st century BCE.bOn locations of the ancient Kyrgyz in the eastern part of the Tianshan mountains, see: Borovkova L. A., The West of Central Asia..., 1989,p.62; Khudiakov Yu. S., The Kyrgyz in the Expanses of Asia, 2nd. revised edition, 1995, pp.48- 56, 58 and 68; Kojobekov M. Ch., The History of the Kyrgyz Khaganate..., pp.5-10; etc.This area is located in the northern areas of the Borohoro Shan of the Tianshan MountainscKhudiakov Yu. S., The Kyrgyz in the Expanses of Asia, 2nd edition, pp.48- 58, etc.near today’s urban centers of Manas and Kara-Shaar.

The ancient Turkic peoples known as the Hun, Wusun, and Dingling, as well as people who spoke Indo-European languages in Eastern Turkestan (Yuezhi, i.e., Tocharians) lived as neighbors of the ancient Kyrgyz.dChorotegin T. K. and Moldokasymov, The Concise History of the Kyrgyz and Kyrgyzstan; Khudiakov Yu. S., The Sword of Baghyr...,p.24.

How the ancient Kyrgyz became subjects of the Xiongnu empire

The ancient Chinese scholar Sima Qian claimed in his Shiji that in 201 BCE the ruler of the Hun (Xiongnu), Modu (Maodun) Chanyu (Bagtug tengir-qut)eOn the title of Tengir-qut and other new readings of the ancient and Medieval Turkic names and titles illuminated in the Chinese written sources, see: The Kyrgyz In Accordance with the Chinese..., 2014; see also: Baytur, Anvar, The Lectures on Kyrgyz History....invaded the neighboring northern and north-western territories. During this war the ruler fought and subjugated a number of peoples–the Hanui, Ciyshe (Kuishe), Dingling, Kyrgyz, and Sinli tribes.fChristian D., A History of Russia, Central Asia..., Vol.1, Inner Eurasia..., pp.184-187; Golden P., An Introduction to the History...,pp.60-61.

It is not possible to clearly establish whether the Kyrgyz had statehood at the time of Modu Chanyu’s invasion. The early Chinese sources (including Sima Qian) do not state whether the above-mentioned peoples, ethnic groups, and tribes were independent polities before the Xiongnu empire conquered their lands. However, we also cannot reject the possibility that they had nomadic states similar to that of the Huns.

Nevertheless, one cannot deny that from the end of the 3rd century BCE the Kyrgyz were part of the Hun (Xiongnu) empire, preserving their own territory compact within the nomadic empire (see the story on General Li Ling in accordance with the Tang Dynasty’s chronicles, below). This demonstrates that the Kyrgyz were under the influence of the vast Turkic speaking nomadic civilization of Inner Asia.

Multiple ethnicities and cultures mixed in the multi-ethnic state established by the Hun empire, and the ancient Turkic languages and their cultures became closer. The Kyrgyz adopted the political establishment and practices, as well as military arts, from the Huns (in the medieval period, the Kyrgyz, like the Huns, divided their forces and tribal groups into right wing, left wing, and central groups).

The Kyrgyz in the first half of the 1st century BCE

When Qiedihou-Chanyu (99 BCE) ruled the Hun (Xiongnu) empire, the Han Dynasty’s armies attacked Eastern Tengir-Too (Eastern Tian-Shan) and lost the war. After the war, the Chinese comander Li Ling, courtesy name Shaoqing, agreed to serve the Huns (Xiongnu). If he had returned to China he would have been executed.

Qiedihou-Chanyu married his daughter to General Li Ling and gave him the title of“juki-bek” to rule the western areas inhabited by the Kyrgyz.aAristov N. A., Usuni and the Kyrgyz..., p.144; Gumilev L. N., History of the Hun..., pp.143-144; Khudiakov Yu. S., The Kyrgyz in the Expanses of Asia, pp.48-49.The descendants of Li Ling and his ethnic Hun wife constantly lived amongst the Kyrgyz. Their appearance, typified by black hair and dark eyes, was different from that of the local Kyrgyz, characterized in turn by blue eyes and yellow hair.

In 90 BCE the Xiongnu forces under the command of General Li Ling joined the military divisions of the Xiongnu army to fight the Han Dynasty’s forces at the mountain called Yanzhi in the Hangai region. The idea of a unified war of independence against Chinese, Mongolian, and Manchu invaders is one of central themes of the Kyrgyz epic Manas. Manas includes a character by the name of Almambet who was an ethnic Chinese warlord who voluntarily joined the Kyrgyz armies and became the best friend of the Kyrgyz ruler, Khan Manas. Many believe that the episode in Manas treating Almambet’s fate incorporated events related to Li Ling.aÇorotegin T., Kırgız Devletinin Oluşumu..., pp.61-76.

The Kyrgyz also actively participated in the political system of the Hun (Xiongnu)empire. This was clearly demonstrated in the year 56 BCE when the Kyrgyz leaders supported the Hun general Uxi (previously not part of the ruling elite of noblemen within the Hun empire) to become the Chanuy (tengir-qut, i.e., supreme ruler) of the Xiongnu, evn though Uxi would lose out to Huhanye Chanuy.

This example demonstrates that the Kyrgyz attempted to protect their interests through palace coup d’états (political intrigue).

Temporary independence of the Kyrgyz

During the political upheaval and the weakening of central rule within the Hun empire in 56 BCE, the Kyrgyz gained independence for a short period. The territory that the Kyrgyz controlled consisted of the northern area of the Borohoro Shan mountains of Eastern Tengir-Too and the central areas of the Gurbantünggüt Desert (Dzoosotoyn Elisen Desert).bKhudiakov Yu. S., The Warfare Art of the Kyrgyz..., Bishkek, 2017, pp.57-60; Chor otegin, T. K., A Concise History of the Kyrgyz...,Bishkek, 2011, pp.157-195; Kojobekov M. Ch., History of the Kyrgyz..., pp.9-11.

The Han Dynasty’s written sources also mention the independent Kyrgyz kingdom; the Chinese historian Ban Gu uses the word “guo” (state) when referring to the small Kyrgyz polity. Due to the territorial isolation of the Kyrgyz state and the Hun (Xiongnu) Empire and the dynastic struggle for the throne of the Hun Empire, the empire did not pay attention to the Kyrgyz state for a number of years. This period thus marked a new stage in the beginnings of Kyrgyz statehood.cChorotegin T. K., Tengir-Too (Tian-Shan) as the Region of Ethnic Origin..., pp.204-209.

In the year 49 BCE the leader of the Northern Huns, Zhizhi Chanyu (Hutuus, i.e. Tezektengir-qut) destroyed the Uxi kingdom (present-day Manas city), then occupied the Kyrgyz kingdom located to the west and the Dingling state located to the north.

Zhizhi Chanyu remained for a while in the territory of the Eastern Tian-Shan where the Kyrgyz established their state in previous years. The Kyrgyz territory in 56-48 BCE was located much closer to the Wusun state with its capital city in the Issyk-Kul area. The Eastern Tengir-Too (Eastern Tian-Shan) is a much more realistic proposition than Upper Yenissei or North-western Mongolia.aBorovkova L. A., The West of Central Asia..., pp.61-62; Joldoshov, Ryskul, The Ancient Kyrgyz..., pp.235-237; etc.

However, due to his close ties with the Kanju kingdom, Zhizhi Chanyu moved towards the west. Some sources point out that some gropus of the Kyrgyz went as far as the Talas valley due to Zhizhi Chanyu’s military marches to the west in the year 48-42 BCE.bBernshtam A. N., Selected Works on Archaeology..., Vol.1, pp.204-205, 239; Aristov N. A., Usun and Kyrgyz..., p.136; and others. In Kyrgyz folklore, the Talas region is regarded as their ancient historical homeland. At that time it was a part of the Kanju (Kangly) state.Eventually, the Kangly were assimilated by different Turkic ethnic groups, including the Kyrgyz.

The Kyrgyz in the 1st-5th centuries CE

The main people living in what is today Kyrgyzstan in the 1st century CE were the population surrounding the Tengir-Too (Tian-Shan) region. The Chinese written sources state that the Kyrgyz lived as neighbors of the Turkic tribes belonging to the Tiele political union, located to the “north of Yanqi (Karashahr city), next to Aktoo”. The same source states that majority of the Dingling people had assimilated with the Kyrgyz and some of the Hun(Xiongnu) people had also joined the Kyrgyz.

In the 5th century, the Kyrgyz, like other Turkic Tiele tribes, fought against the Ruoran(i.e., Avars) who came from northern China. However, they were conquered by the Rouran people.cBichurin N. Ya., Collection of Information..., Vol.1, pp.188, 350- 351.The Turkic tribe of Ashina (the Wolf), or in some interpretations Asilan ( the Lion),had close ethnic ties with the Kyrgyz.

Some believe that the legend of the female wolf mentioned in some Chinese chronicles was derived from the history of the inter-ethnic relations between the Ashina tribe and the Kyrgyz while they were based in the eastern areas of the Tengir-Too (Tian-Shan) mountain ranges. In the chronicles, the Kyrgyz are believed to be one of the Turkic descendants of the female wolf.

In summary, ancient written sources demonstrate that the Kyrgyz have a deep history where the Kyrgyz people mixed with Turkic tribes, assimilated many of the Turkic speaking people in Inner and Central Asia, culturally influenced these people in the above-mentioned territories and traded with a number of countries along the Silk Road.dKhudiakov Yu. S., The Role of Ancient Turks and Kyrgyz..., pp.110-118; Khudiakov Yu. S., Trade Routes Linking South Siberia..., pp.72-84; Khudiakov Yu. S., The Role of Trade and Cultural Ties..., pp.171-175; Tabaldiev K. Sh., Ancient Monuments...; etc.

Decrypting the Ethnonym “Kyrgyz”

The Kyrgyz, a part of the Turkic peoples, were always known by the ethnonym “Kyrgyz”.The termaLigeti L., Die Herkunft des Volksnamens Kirgis...; Tchoroev T. K., The Ethnonym “Kyrgyz”...; Yakhontov S. E., The Earlier References... .is decrypted within the Turkic languages. The popular (folkloric) and academic explanations vary significantly.

One folkloric interpretation suggests that the ethnonym “Kyrgyz” consists of two words:“kyrk” meaning forty and “kyz” meaning women (i.e., the descendants of forty women).The second folkloric interpretation suggests that “kyrk” is the number forty, and the other component is the ethnonym “Oguz” (i.e., the Oguz union of the forty tribes). In another explanation the component “kyr” of the ethnonym is interpreted to mean “a cliff”, and it is connected with the ethnonym “Oguz” (i.e., the Oguz branch from the mountainous regions).

The Chinese 14th-century history titled Yuanshi (History of the Yuan Dynasty) cites the folkloric interpretation stating that the descendants of forty Chinese women and the northern“Us” (us–ugus–oguz?) people were known as the Kyrgyz. The ethno-genealogical legend of the Kyrgyz recounted in a 16th-century Farsi work by Saif al-Din Akhsikendi from the Fergana Valley states that when Sultan Sanjar invaded the Fergana Valley in the 12th century,a group of forty Oguz from Ozgen fled to Khojend (Northern Tajikistan) and these clans formed the Kyrgyz.

Academical interpretations of the ethnonym “Kyrgyz” are different and this approach does not rely on folklore or legends, but uses linguistic and onomastic methods to divide the“Kyrgyz” ethnonym into two parts to explain its origin. The various scholarly interpretations and their proponents include: 1. “Kyrk” (forty) + “juz” (one hundred) = “Kyrk juz”, the forty confederations (V. V. Radloff); 2. “Kyrk” (forty) + “er” (people) = “Kyrk er” (the ethnic Bashkyr Turkologist, Professor Ahmed Zeki Velidi Togan); 3. “Kyra” + “Gyz” = people with black hair (the Karakalpak scholar Davlen Aitmuratov); 4. “Kyrgu” (“kyryg”) + the plural suffix “yz” = the “Red Ones” (Soviet Russian historian Konstatin Petrov); 5. “kyryg” +“oguz” = “Red Oguz”, Southern Oguz, or Western Oguz (Soviet Russian Turkologist Nikolai Baskakov); 6. “Kyrgyz” = “kyrgyt”/“Kyrgyz”, “glowing features”, meaning people with yellow hair, a glowing face, and blue eyes (Soviet Russian Turkologist Andrei Kononov);and, 7. “kyrk” (forty) + the suffix “yz” that is used to show union or integrity among numbers(Kyrgyz Turkologist, Professor Gulzura Jumakunova).aJumakunova G., “Kırgız” Etnoniminin Kökeni..., pp.38-47-б; Tchoroev (Chorotegin) T., The Kyrgyz // The History of Civilisations of Central Asia, Vol.5, UNESCO, 2003, pp.109-125; Karatayev O. K., A Dictionary of the Ethnic Names...; Karatayev O. K., The Origin,Dispersing Areas... .

When decrypting the ethnonym “Kyrgyz”, it is important to point out that the names of other neighboring Turkic people, such as “gyz”, “guz”, “gun”, “gur”, “gar”, “gaz”, “ar”, “ash”,and “az” (Oguz, Gagauz, Kun, Uighur, Onogur, Bulgar, Suvar, Hazar, Kumuk, Khoorai,Chuvash, Tiele) and other closely tied components must also be compared. Hence, the ethnonym “Kyrgyz” was derived only from the Turkic language group.bSee: Butanayev V. Ya., Khudiakov Yu. S., The Yenisei Kyrgyz State during the Old Turkic and Mongolian Epochs, pp.18-40;Chorotegin T., Omurbektegin T. Ethnonym “Kyrgyz”, pp.3-9; Butanayev V. Ya., Butanayeva I. I., The Yenissei Kyrgyz..., 2002;Jumakunova G., “Kırgız” Etnoniminin Kökeni..., pp.38-47; Tchoroev (Chorotegin) T., The Kyrgyz..., 2003; etc.

The Kyrgyz people together with their ethnonym have other features closely tied to the Turkic world. At least from the first Millennium BCE the Turkic peoples of Eurasia had Caucasoid (i.e., Europoid) and Mongoloid racial genetic traits. Apparently, in ancient times,the Kyrgyz people had racial genetic features closer to those of Caucasoid groups than other ancient and early medieval Turkic ethnic groups.

The Turkologist Karl Menges stated that the allegedly non-Turkic Kyrgyz were assimilated with the Turks in a much later period,cMenges, Karl Heinrich, The Turkic Peoples and Their Languages... (Kyrgyz translation), p.94.This German linguist and scholar made these claims because of the Caucasoid racial features of the Kyrgyz people. However, it is difficult to support this statement because one cannot claim that all Turkic people looked alike. One must assume that people with different Caucasoid features, such as yellow hair and blue eyes, lived in the vast area of Central and Inner Asia even in the 1st millennium BCE; as the Uzbekistani anthropologists T. K. Khodjayov and G. K. Khodjayova stress, the Wusun people in Kyrgyzstan and Central Asia also had more Caucasoid features than other Mongoloid groups at that time.dKhodjayov T. K., Khodjayova G. K., The Historical Anthropology..., pp.23-27.

That is why we assume that it is impossible to isolate the ancient (even pre-historic)Caucasoid and Mongoloid populations in Eurasia from each other in accordance with the linguistic views of scholars who lived in the twentieth century and who did not consider the latest achievements of modern anthropology. It would be more realistic to expect that the ethnic groups with different language and racial background were mixed even prior to the time when their ethnic names were recorded in ancient written sources.

The Kyrgyz during the Great Turkic Kaghanate

In the 6th century the Turkic people from Altai defeated the Ruanruan (Rouran)Khaganate whose army was constantly attempting to conquer the whole of Central Asia.During this period the Kyrgyz gained independence in the Upper Yenissei region in Southern Siberia. Chinese chronicles state that the “King named the Kyrgyz established a kingdom on the banks of Afu (Abakan) and Jian (Kem, i.e. Yenissei) rivers”.aBichurin N. Ya., Collection of Information..., 1998, pp.225, 226.

When the ruler of the Great Turkic Khaganate Bumin Qaghan passed away, the Kyrgyz Qaghan/Qakhan sent his ambassador to the funeral feast. This information demonstrates that the Kyrgyz were not always the subjects of the Altai Turks.

The historians from the Tang Dynasty wrote in Xin Tangshu that the Kyrgyz khagan(ruler) Elteber Ïšbara Ačan 失鉢屈阿棧 visited the Chinese empire to personally establish diplomatic ties (in the year 648). The chronicles also state the Tang Dynasty’s Emperor Taizong greeted the Kyrgyz leader with great pomp.bTursun, Jarkyn, Between the Kyrgyz Khaganate and..., pp.77-78.

Kyrgyz Qaghan Bars-Bek

The situation in the broader region during the seventh century was clearly portrayed in the Orkhon monumental runic inscriptions. These monuments were built to glorify the Qaghans and leaders of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Moreover, the ideology and political interests of the state are also mentioned.

The monument built for the prince Kul-tegin states: “On the right [i.e. in the south], the people of Tabhach were his enemies, on the left [in the north] the Toguz-Oguz people of Baz Khagan were his enemies. The Kyrgyz, Kurykan, Oguz-Tartar, Kytan, and Tatabi were all his enemies”.cSee: The Kultegin monument’s runic-like script in Mongolia with the Kazakh translation. URL: http://bitig.org/?lang=k&mod=1&tid=1&o id=15&m=1.

As we now know, Elteber Ïšbara Ačan was the first Yenissei Kyrgyz Kaghan/Qakhan with a known name. The first Kyrgyz leader who reinstated the title Qaghan from the Second Eastern Turk Kaghanate was Bars-bek. He died in the winter of 710/711.

The petroglyph erected in memory of Bars-bek was found in the valley of the Yenissei near a lake called Altyn-Köl (nowadays the monument is housed in the Minusinsk City Mmuseum, Krasnoyarsk region, Russia).

The runic text on this monument touches on the life of Bars-bek lived, stating: “For ten months my mother carried me. She presented me to my people [my country]. With my gallantry, I grew strong in my own country. I fought many enemies with all my strength…”aSee: The Altyn-Köl (E-28) runic script from Upper Yenissei (in todays Khakas Republic of Russia) with the Kazakh translation. URL:http://bitig.org/?lang=k&mod=1&tid=2&oid=39&m=1.

In order to build peace with the Kyrgyz, Kapagan Qaghan/Qakhan (the brother of Elteris Qakhan) recognized Bars-bek as a leader with the title of Qaghan/Qakhan. Around the year 700 Kapagan Qaghan/Qakhan gave the daughter of his brother Elteris Qaghan/Qakhan as a wife to Bars-bek. This story is mentioned in the monument of Kul-tegin:

“Bars-bek became a Qaghan. We presented him with the title of Qakhan and gave my sister in marriage to be his queen.”bThe Kul-tegin Monument (Line No.20). http://bitig.org/?lang=k&mod=1&tid=1&oid=15&m=1; see also: The Bilge-Kaghan Inscription in Khosho=Tsaidam (lines 16-17). URL: http://bitig.org/?lang=k&mod=1&tid=1&oid=16&m=1.

During the reign of Bars-bek kaghan the Kyrgyz Kaghanate became stronger and more influential.

Foreign Policy of Bars-bek

After securing diplomatic ties with the Second Eastern Turkic Kaghanate, Kyrgyz Qaghan Bars-bek continued to rule an independent country with its own political agenda.Although Bars-bek’s in-laws had a different agenda from him, Bars-bek continued to strengthen and apprise the Kyrgyz Kaghanate in the Upper Yenissei.

In the years 707 and 709, the Kyrgyz Kaghanate’s ambassadors were sent to Chang’an,the capital city of the Tang Dynasty. Since the Tang Empire was fighting the Second Eastern Turkic Kaghanate, strengthening Kyrgyz-Chinese diplomatic ties was of interest to both the Kyrgyz and Tang parties.

The Kyrgyz Kaghanate also strengthened its diplomatic and trade ties with the Turgesh Kaghanate (704-766), which controlled the territories in the eastern regions of Western Central Asia and the Tengir-Too area. Uch-elig, the Turgesh Qaghan (d. 706) who established a new dynasty after killing the last remaning Qaghan of the Ashina clan, was resisting the Arab invasion in the west, and fighting the Second Eastern Turkic Kaghanate in the east.Hence, it was in the interest of the Turgesh Kaghanate to establish strong diplomatic ties with the Kyrgyz Kaghanate which controlled the Upper Yenissei region.

In approximately 709, three kingdoms created a military alliance against the Second Eastern Turkic Kaghanate: the Kyrgyz Kaghanate in the north, the Tang Empire in the east,and the Turgesh Kaghanate in the west.

The allies of the Kyrgyz Qaghan Bars-bek wanted revenge and agreed to jointly fight the Second Turkic Kaghanate. This event is related in the runic inscription on the monument built for the famous eastern Turkic leader Ton-yokuk (Tong-Yoquq, the First Diamond): “The leader of the Tang Empire was our enemy. The leader of the On-Oq was our enemy. But our main enemy was the strong Qaghan of the Kyrgyz. These three Qaghans entreated us to march towards Altun Jysh, the Altun forests in what is today Northern Mongolia, against the Turkic Qaghan. If we do not take (the initiative) against them, then they will (defeat us)…”aThe Bilge Ton-yokuk (Ton-yoquq; another reading is Tunuq-oq, i.e. Pure Arrow) Monument in Mongolia with the Kazakh translation.URL: http://bitig.org/?lang=k&mod=1&tid=1&oid=17&m=1.

The Orkhon runic monumental inscriptions portray the events in the winter of 710-711.The leader of the Kyrgyz Kaghanate Bars-bek wanted to invade, together with his allies, and destroy the Second Eastern Turkic Kaghanate with its capital in the Orkhon river basin.

This invasion would open up the Central Asian valleys and the territories in Orkhon to the Kyrgyz Kaghanate and it would also weaken the Second Eastern Turkic Kaghanate.

The leader of the Second Turkic Kaghanate, Kapagan Qaghan through his spies managed to discover the plans of the Kyrgyz Kaghanate, Tang Empire, and Turgesh Kaghanate. Kapagan Qaghan decided to initiate a pre-emptive strike against the Kyrgyz Kaghanate. Kapagan Qaghan sent his brother Elteris’ son, Bilge, aged 26 in the year 709, to the Yenissei region to fight the Kyrgyz. Bilge’s brothers Kul-tegin and Ton-yokuk joined his army as commanders.

This event was described in the monumental inscription of Bilge Qaghan found in Khosho-Tsaidam: “When I was 26, I went to war with the Kyrgyz. Together with my soldiers,we crossed the Kem River and fought the Kyrgyz. I fought bravely and destroyed their army”.bThe Bilge-Kaghan Inscription in Khosho-Tsaidam (Lines 26-27).

When the invasion started, the Yenissei or the western passage through the Sayan Mountains was covered in snow, so it was not easy for the Eastern Turkic army to cross the passage. In 711 they surprised the Kyrgyz with their attack.

The Orkhon runic monumental inscriptions dedicated to Kul-tegin and Bilge Qaghan state that the decisive battle took place in a forest called Sungha. The inscription found in Altyn-Kol to Bars-bek also talks about the Sungha forest: “I fought against a bigger army than mine, and unfortunately left my people…”aThe Altyn-Kol inscription...: URL: http://bitig.org/?lang=k&mod=1&tid=2&oid=39&m=1.

This battle was also mentioned in the inscription on the monument dedicated to Ton-Yokuk: “We attacked the Kyrgyz while they were sleeping. We opened our way with spears.Their army and people scattered through the territory. We fought and we won”.bThe Bilge Ton-yokuk Monument in Mongolia... (Lines 27-28).

The bravery of the Kyrgyz Qaghan during the battle was portrayed on the monuments found in Altyn-Kol. It is important to mention that the Orkhon monuments always popularized the actions of their own leaders.

The monument built for Kul-tegin is inscribed: “We fought with their Qaghan (i.e.,Kyrgyz Qaghan) on the border of the Sungha forest. Kul-tegin riding his white horse attacked and killed a man with his arrow, then he killed two men with his spear, one after the other…”cThe Kul-tegin Monument (Line No. 36).

In this battle Bars-bek died as a hero. The Yenissei Kyrgyz Kaghanate lost to the Second Eastern Turic Kaghanate and temporarily became their subjects.

The death of Bars-bek and the defeat of the Kyrgyz Kaghanate were described in the inscriptions on the monuments found at Altyn-Köl (Lake) in Southern Siberia. One of the lines of the inscription, dedicated to the brave Kyrgyz leader, states: “Bars, do not leave us!...”

However, the authors of the Altyn-Kol inscription believed that the Kyrgyz state would be free again and its people independent in the future. The lines in the inscription dedicated to Bars-bek state: “For my bravery in battle, due to the respect for my older relatives and younger relatives, this monument was built for me and it will stand forever.”dThe Altyn-Köl (E-28) runic scri pt... .

This ancient monument inscribed in the Kyrgyz language was designed, apparently, to wake up patriotic feelings among the local people. Subsequently, the Kyrgyz Kaghanate did gain independence shortly after the death of Bars-bek.

At the beginning of the 8th century, the Kyrgyz attempted to strengthen diplomatic ties with the Tang Empire. Chinese historical chronicles state that Kyrgyz ambassadors came to the capital of the Tang Empire in the years 722, 723, 724, 747, and 748.aTursun, Jarkyn, Between the Kyrgyz Khaganate..., pp.79-81.

When prince Kul-tegin died in 731, the one-year commemoration of his soul was a grandiose event. The Kyrgyz Kaghanate sent its representative to the Second Eastern Turkic Kaghanate to attend this funeral event. The monument dedicated to Kul-tegin states:

“Qyrqyz qaghanda Tardush Ynanchu Chor keldi”

“Chor-Tardush Ynanchu came from the Kyrgyz Kaghan.”bThe Kul-tegin Monument (Line No.12). – http://bitig.org/?lang=k&mod=1&tid=1&oid=15&m=1.

The governmental system of the Yenissei Kyrgyz Kaghanate

In the hierarchy of power – the Qaghan was considered the leader of state in the Kyrgyz Kaghanate. The “Qaghan” title was given to the monarch, whose power was slightly limited by the council of noblemen.

The Kyrgyz noblemen had such titles as elteber, tegin, tutuk, and tarkhan. This system of power was similar to that in the other Central and Inner Asian Turkic Kaghanates.

The Chinese chronicles titled Taiping Huanyu Ji, written in 984-987, records: “The Kyrgyz state is led by Hesi-bei, the second in rank is Ajuishebi-bei, and the third in rank is Ami-bei. These three men together lead the country. The Kyrgyz are governed by people with the titles of xai-san, dudu [i.e., tutuk], the second in rank are leaders with the titles of xianxiun, and daxian [i.e., tarkhan].”cJarkyn Tursun restores the three names/titles as follows: Keser Beg (訖悉輩), Čabïš Beg (居沙波輩) and Amey Beg (阿米輩). See:Jarkyn Tursun, Between the Kyrgyz Khaganate..., p.77. (She also thanked the Kyrgyz Turkologist Rysbek Alimov for his terminological suggestions.)

New History of Tang Dynasty states that the Kyrgyz governance system entailed six ranks for government officials. Within the above-mentioned ranks, there were seven ministers, three senior leaders, and ten supervisors; other ranks such as junior leader, and tarkhan were also part of the system.dBichurin N. Ya., Collection of Information on Peoples..., 1950, p.352; Kojobekov M. Ch., The History of the Kyrgyz..., pp.132-133.

The Kyrgyz during the inpedendence of Uighur Kaghanate

During the final years of the 8th century, the Kyrgyz Kaghanate was part of the Uighur Kaghanate which controlled the Orkhon region and other parts of Inner Asia.aOn the Uighur khaganate see: Kamalov A. K., Ancient Uighurs, 2001.These events were mentioned in a multilingual inscription found at Kara-Balghasun. The Chinese language script states that the Kyrgyz army consisted of about 400,000 strongmen; however, the Sogdian script states that it was about 200,000 strongmen.

Dr. Ablet Kamalov proposed a new translation of the Chinese text of the Kara-Balgasun script into Russian:

“Previously, the Kyrgyz state in the North could have pulled about four hundred thousand arrows [i.e., could have about four hundred thousand soldiers. – TTch]. Their kaghan was brave, audacious, wise, courageous, and warlike, possessing more powerful forces since his childhood. He could hit a target with his first shot. The Kyrgyz kagan met an arrow shot and died”.bKamalov A. K., Ancient Uighurs, p.197 (See Lines 13-14).

The Kyrgyz Qaghan died in battle and his successor received the lower title “Inal”conferred by the Uighur Kaghanate. This meant that the Upper Yenissei area temporarily came under the control of the Uighur kaghanate. However, the Kyrgyz country in the Upper Yenissei continued to maintain its trade with its traditional partners in different regions of Eurasia.cOn the Kyrgyz trade route see: Lubo-Lesnichenko, E. I., The Uighur and the Kyrgyz..., pp. 4-9.

During the last reigning period of the Uighur Qaghan Bao-I (808-821) the Kyrgyz “inal”announced his state’s independence. Thus, for the Kyrgyz Kaghanate the year 820 became a new stage in the struggle to gain full independence from the Uighur Kaghanate.

The Kyrgyz Qaghan named his mother (her ethnic origins were in the Turgesh Kaghanate) the “Widowed Queen”, and named his wife (a daughter of the Karluk Jabghu) as the Queen. Although the Uighurs gave the title “inal” to the Kyrgyz leader, we assume that the Yenissei Kyrgyz population continued to call their leader Qaghan.

This information also illuminates that the Tengir-Too states (the Turgesh kaghanate, then Karluk Jabghu state) had been traditionally supporting the Kyrgyz Qaghan.

The Chinese chronicles refer to his title as “A-Re”.dAlimov, Rysbek, On the Yenisei Kirgiz title..., pp.265-283. We suppose that some modern Kyrgyz and Chi nese linguists, publicists,and writers, such as Makelek Ömürbay, re-constructed the title as “ajo” by mistake. The modern proverb “Ai deer aja joq, qoi deer qojo joq” (There is no Hadjji who would oppose [challenge] the person; there is no Khodja who would oppose the person) is connected with the period when most of the Tengir-Too Kyrgyz became Sunni Muslims. Some Sufi Khodjas, as well as some devoted Muslims who visited Mekkah (Hadji / Ajy / Ajo), could have influenced them. However, the Yenissei Kyrgyz kaghanate was a non-Islamic state. See:Ömürbay, Makelek, The Kyrgyz Statehood in..., pp.18-19. See its criticism: Chorotegin T., The Kyrgyz History: Suggestions by Makelek Ömürbay, Second article.This Kyrgyz Qaghan fought with the Uighur Kaghanate for about twenty years (820-840).

The Great Kyrgyz Empire (840 to the beginning of the 10th century)

In 840 the army of the Kyrgyz Kaghanate numbering 100,000 men destroyed the capital city of the Uighur Kaghanate, the Ordo-Balyq. The last Qaghan of the Uighur died during the battle. The Kyrgyz Qaghan destroyed the Yurt made of gold for the Uighur Qaghan and pushed the local Uighur tribes to spread in Inner Asia and Turfan basin.aDrompp M. R., Tang China and the collapse..., 2004; Kamalov A. K., Ancient Uighurs; Kojobekov M. Ch., The History of the Kyrgyz...: etc.

The prominent Academician Vasilij Vladimirovich Bartold (Wilhelm Barthold;1869-1930) coined the term “The Great Kyrgyz Empire” (in Russian: Kyrgyzskoie velikoderzhavie).bBartold V. V., The Kyrgyz: Historical Outline; Kojobekov M. Ch., The History of the Kyrgyz..., p.71.This term was also used to differentiate the previous stages of the Yenissei Kyrgyz Kaghanate from the stage when the kaghanate became a large nomadic empire between the middle of the 9th century and the beginning of the 10th century.

The Kyrgyz leaders also used the title Qaghan (abbreviated to “kan”, “han”, or “khan”)during the Great Kyrgyz Empire. This Empire which existed from 840-924 is named by modern Kyrgyzstani scholars as the Great Kyrgyz Kaghanate.cKyrgyz and Karakhanid Khaganates: Indelible Traces..., 2014.

The Tang dynasty chonicles in Chinese language titled Xin Tangshu (New History of the Tang Dynasty), written in the 11th century, records: “The Kyrgyz is a large state. With its territories, it is equal to the other Turkic states together. The eastern parts of it extend to the state of Kurykan (Quryqan), its southern area reaches Tibet, and its south-western borders reach Karluk country”.dMaterials on the History of the Kyrgyz..., Vol.2. Extracts from the Chinese Sources. See also: Kyuner N. V., Chinese information...

There were episodes of intensive diplomatic relations between the Kyrgyz kaghanate and the Tang Dynasty, especially in the 840s.eSuprunenko G. P., Documents on Relatons between China and..., pp.67-81; Tursun, Jarkyn, Between the Kyrgyz Khaganate..., pp.81-86;etc.

Persian and Arabic written sources state that the western borders of the Great Kyrgyz Kaghanate reached Jeti-Suu and the Central Tengir-Too regions. Morever, the Yenissei Kyrgyz inscriptions found in Sujiin-Davan (Süüdziin-dawaa; 48°30＇N, 105°E)fUseev N., The Written Monuments in Yenissei..., pp.503- 504: Chorotegin T., The Kyrgyz History: Suggestions by Makelek Ömürbay:Second article. See also: Orkhon-Enissei texts / Edited by S. Kudaibergenov and S. Sydykov; Izgi Ö., A Book on the Visit of the Chinese Ambassador....clearly prove that the Kyrgyz subjected the region of what is today Northern Mongolia in the 840s and after.

The prominent Russian archaeologist, Professor Yulij Sergeevich Khudiakov wrote that the Kyrgyz Kaghanate’s political achievements in 840-845 led to an “hour of stardom” in the Kyrgyz people’s medieval history.aKhudiakov Yu. S., The Kyrgyz in Tabat, pp. 62-63.

During this period (840-925), the Great Kyrgyz Kaghanate controlled most of Southern Siberia, Inner Asia, and the eastern parts of the Tengir-Too (Tian-Shan). Hence, the nomadic state established at the end of the early medieval period was the most impressive of the Kyrgyz people’s ancient and early medieval states.

During the era of the Great Kyrgyz Khaganate many groups of the Yenissei Kyrgyz moved to the eastern Tengir-Too and Inner Asia.bKaraev O. K., The Arabic and Persian Sources...; Karaev O. K., Kojobekov M. Ch., On the Migration of the Yenissei Kyrgyz..., pp.41-66;Chorotegin T. K., Moldokasymov K. S., A Concise History....Apparently, some of them also moved towards the Urasl together with the Bashkirs and Kipchaks.

It was time when the Kyrgyz migrations created another wave of ethnic migrations across the vast territory of Eurasia: the Kipchaks and Bashkirs moved towards the Urals and the Volga (Itil), the Pechenegs moved further towards the lands of Kievan Rus, the Finnish-Ugrian peoples including the Hungarians moved towards Central Europe, the Turkic Oghuz moved towards Iran, Anatolia, and the Caucasus, and the Uighurs dispersed in the vast territory between Ordos and the Turfan Basin in Inner Asia.cChorotegin T. K., The Ethnic Situations in the Turkic Regions...; Tchoroev T. K., The Kyrgyz in Siberia and..., pp.143-146; Urstanbekov B. U., Tchoroev T. K., The Kyrgyz History...; etc.

Conclusion

In summary, the Kyrgyz who were first mentioned in the ancient Chinese sources in relation with the political and diplomatic events in the 1st Millennium BCE had different stages in their history of statehood, subject to various vicissitudes. However, the ethnic roots of the Kyrgyz were developed wider and deeper in connection with other historical neighbors in Eurasia.dAsankanov A., Diaspora, pp.53-63; A History of the Kirghiz SSR...; Akhmedov B. A., The Historical and Geographic...; Alymkulova S. K., The Kypchaks...; Beishenaliev T. O., The Life of Mönkö-Temir...; Beishenaliev T. O., The Fate of the Tatar...; Aspects of the Ethnic History of the Kyrgyz...; Butanaev V. Ya., The Ethnic History...; Dor, Rémy, The Kyrgyz in...; Hu Zhen-hua and Imart, G.,Fu Yü Gïrgïs ...; Jian Taisiang, Shomaev A. A., and Skobelev S. G., The origin ...; Karaev Ö. K., The History of the Qarakhanid...;Mambetakun, Mambetturdu, Salk, Gundula, The Fu-Yu Gïrgïs..., pp.287-296; Moldobaev I. B., “Manas”...; Moldobaev I. B., The Ethnic Ties...; Traditional Sport Games...; Tchoroev T. K. (Chorotegin), The Ancient and Medieval Kyrgyz..., pp.5-27; Chorotegin T. K., Mahmud Kashghari (Barsqani)...; Chorotegin (Tchoroev) T. K., Divanu, Lugati t-Türk...; Tchoroev T. K., Urstanbekov B. U., The Main Stages in Spreading of Islam..., pp.28-44; Umurzakov S. U., Essays on the History...; etc.

During the ancient and early medieval ages and afterwards, the Kyrgyz spread and assimilated many of the neighboring ethnic Turkic and other peoples. At the same time, the ancient Kyrgyz became one of the ancestors of various nations. Among them are the Tengir-Too and Pamir (including the Ala-Too) Kyrgyz, the Fuyu (Manchus) Kyrgyz, Khakas, Tyva,Shor, Saryg-Yugur, and some tribes amongst the Altai, Bashkyr, Sakha, Kazakh, and Lobnor peoples, as well as components of the Uighur and other Turkic ethnicities in Eurasia. These ethnicities (including the Tengir-Too Kyrgyz) went through difficult and complex historical processes. However, one cannot deny that not only the modern Kyrgyz, but also other above mentioned ethnicities are closely connected to the ancient and early medieval Kyrgyz history and their statehood stages.

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Yu Taishan, A Concise Commentary on the “Memoir on the Western Regions” in the Official History Books of the Western Han, Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, the Northern and Southern Dynasties / Commentary translated by Li Qiancheng; Historical texts translated by Yu Taishan et al., and edited by Victor H. Mair; English Editor Bruce Doar. Beijing: The Commercial Press, 2014. 4+907 p. Monograph Series on Eursian Cultural and Historical Studies; edited by Li Jinxiu. ISBN 978-7-100-10532-3.

Yu Taishan, A Note On The Geographical Location Of Jiankun // The article in this volume.2019. (We have used its English translation thanks to the author and his Beijing collegues.)