The Research on Linguistic Sexism

Ⅰ. Gender discrimination / Sexism

1.1 Definition of gender discrimination

Sexism， also known as gender discrimination or sex discrimination， is the application of the belief or attitude that there are characteristics implicit to ones gender that indirectly affects ones abilities in unrelated areas. It is a form of discrimination or devaluation based on a persons sex， with such attitudes being based on beliefs in traditional stereotypes of gender roles. The term sexism is most often used in relation with discrimination against women， in the context of patriarchy.

1.2 Reasons for the linguistic sexism

There are some reasons， to analyze from the perspective of semantics， political discourse， power ideology， male chauvinism， cultural stereotype， sex role， social psychology， cognitive pattern.

Ⅱ. Explanations for the linguistic sexism phenomenon from the perspective of sociolinguistics

2.1 the cultural stereotype of patriarchal view.

2.2 the direct product of double standards in powerful discourse.

2.3 the concrete manifestation of sex role within the groups

2.4 the result of symbolic representation in social identity.

2.5 the portrait of the social psychology （the view that） men are superior to women

2.6 the derivative product of constructing social gender schema

Ⅲ.The research on linguistic sexism

1. Searching & identifying stage （in the late 1960s- in the 1970s），

It did research through introspective approach and folk linguistic approach.

2. Formal criticizing & matching stage （in the 1970s- in the 1980s）

It did research on word-formation by formal analysis and then proposed some ways to reform.

Structural reforming & semantic analysis stage （ in the 1980s- in the 1990s ）

It mainly did research on semantics.

Reforming reflecting & cognitive studying stage （ in the 1990s- till now）

It researches on the cognitive research and linguistic sexism.

Ⅳ. Analysis on the linguistic sexism from the perspective of etymology，anthropology， sociolinguistics

4.1 Analysis on the linguistic sexism from the perspective of etymology

— Taking Genesis as an example

Genesis 2：22 And the bone which the Lord had taken from the man he made into a woman， and took her to the man.

Gen 2：23 And the man said， This is now bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh： let her name be Woman because she was taken out of Man.

From these two paragraphs， we can see that the sex roles in Bible were determined by the Lord， which simultaneously showed the subordinate position of woman， comparing with man. That is to say， male-orientated.

4.2 Analysis on the linguistic sexism from the perspective of anthropology

例如：不论是旧石器时代还是新石器时代，男人负责打猎，而女人负责采集，采集的产出较为稳定。在原始社会，能够生存下来的就是强者，这一点是很重要。在这方面，男人就显得稍逊一筹，因此女性在生产中的地位就较男性突出。根据经济基础决定上层建筑原理，女性就成氏族的领导者。当人类社会从采集狩猎为主向定居农业以及畜牧业转变时，男人的优势地位就得到极大地凸显。战争也导致男人的地位突出。男人取得指挥权后，也就赢得了保护氏族安全的社会地位。女性就不得不让位于男人。

From this example， we can see the linguistic sexism has existed since the primitive period， and until now， it is self-evident that it still exists as the above shown.

4.3 Analysis on the linguistic sexism from the perspective of sociolinguistics

Discrimination of sex-specific address forms

Mr. Mrs.

+ animate + animate

+ human + human

+/- adult + adult

+/- married + married

In Chinese， Tongzhi & Xiansheng/Xiaojie is a typical example to show the linguistic sexism in address forms.

Ⅴ. The instances of linguistic sexism in English & Chinese

1. For instance， the following words can embrace the linguistic sexism.

“man” “he” human， man ， he and they

it / she/ he they 他們

Human （ man ） 人类

2. Ronald Wardhaugh said that “one particular bit of sexism in languages that has aroused much comment is the gender systems that so many of them have， the he-she-it ‘natural gender system of English or the le-la or der-die-das ‘grammatical gender systems of French and German.”

在19 世纪规定语法产生以前，与he为通性代词使用的同时，单数they和he-or-she的用法都是可行的，至今单数they的用法在口语中仍被接受。但是由于规定语法家们的竭力反对，后来在1850年美国的宪法条例中明确规定，“当先行词为性别不明的不定代词或名词短语时，依照传统惯例，由于在语法上阳性比阴性重要，因此只用he。Every one should raise his hand when he is ready”。单数they 和he-or- she的用法都被否定了。

3. Asymmetry form in language

A classification of asymmetric forms in English

Word of

Man Word of

Woman Word about

Man Word about Woman

chairman seminal

（=highly original）

Man of the year virile

shrew bitchy

virago wanton

The asymmetry can reflect at least three tendencies.

1） male oriented

2） the information communicative barrier

3） other effects

4. The linguistic sexism in English language

bachelor（unmarried man）：（ 快乐的） 单身汉；/ spinster （unmarried woman）：（冷漠、古怪、不近人情的）老处女；/governor：统治者、掌权者、总督；/ governess：（受雇于人的）家庭女教师；/ mister：先生，丈夫；/ mistress：受人供养的女人、情妇；/ warlock：巫师（不含贬义）；/ witch：（带有“丑陋、行为古怪”等贬义的） 巫婆；/ sir：冠在姓名前为尊称；/ madam：（常用来指妓院的） 老鸨；/ king：可引申为有成就的巨子，如钢铁大王：a steel king；/ queen：其贬义也指妓女。

5.汉语中的性别歧视：例如：虽然夫妻本是地位平等之人，但我们从男人对自己妻子的称呼看得出，夫和妻的地位是垂直的，而不是平行的：贱内、贱人、拙荆、糟糠、内人、内子、内助、内主、贱妾等。这还算是文雅的，在农村，更多的是俗称：老婆、婆娘、家里的、屋里的、做饭的、烧火的、孩子她娘等，这些称呼无不反映出女人活动的空间以及卑下的地位。

在有关男女的词语中，无论是两个字的还是四个字的词，男的总是排前面，女的总是排在后面：夫妇、夫妻、男女、父母、公婆、叔婶、兄嫂、弟妹，夫贵妻荣、夫唱妇随、男耕女织、善男信女、痴男怨女、男婚女嫁、男盗女娼、男尊女卑、男女有别、男婚女聘、男欢女爱、男媒女妁……（常敬宇，1995：19）

Ⅵ.Conclusion

1. The unequal society， though equal in law.

2. The gift when born and the growth gradually.

3. The traditional views that people have frequently influence the behaviors they have. e.g.“女大不中留”， “家窮草束发， 仍是男子汉”。

4. 周公制礼，“男尊女卑”。

5. The feminist movements are more and more nowadays， which play important roles in the society.

References：

[1]Benard Spolsky.Sociolinguisticsp[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社， 2010.

[2]Ronald Wardhaugh.An introduction to Sociolinguistics[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2000.

[3]常敬宇.汉语词汇与文化[M].北京：北京大学出版社，1995.

[4]吴静.浅析通性代词He 的语义模糊性及文化含义.山东外语教学[J].1998（2）.

[5]杨永林.社会语言学研究：功能· 称谓· 性别篇[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2005.

[6]http：//www.docin.com/p-195467935.html[OL].

[7]http：//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexism[OL].

【作者简介】李美玲（1987.02-），女，河南濮阳人，西南交通大学希望学院，研究生，助教，研究方向：外语教学法。