再生水利用对土壤和地下水的影响研究综述
2018-11-12王茜
王茜
摘要:由于处理工艺和运行成本的限制,再生水中仍残留一定数量的污染物,长期使用必然会对受纳区的土壤和地下水环境产生一定影响。通过文献调研和数据统计,获得了再生水受纳区土壤和地下水中有机污染物、重金属、营养物质、盐度、pH值和微生物等的种类和浓度,并结合环境统计年报、土壤环境和地下水质量标准,分析和讨论了再生水利用对受纳区土壤和地下水环境的影响。结果表明,再生水多来自于生活污水,其受纳区域介质中药物及个人护理品污染和盐度增加对土壤和地下水环境影响较大,再生水中其他污染物则影响不大。为了提高再生水利用安全性,应根据受纳区的使用功能,制定出污染物监测方案、应急预案和管理措施。
关键词:再生水;土壤;地下水;有机污染物;重金属;营养物质;盐度
中图分类号:X508文献标志码:A文章编号:
16721683(2018)04010410
Review about effects of reclaimed water usage on soil and groundwater
WANG Qian1,2,HUAN Huan3,WANG Hongrui1,ZHANG Botao1,2
(1.College of Water Sciences,Beijing Normal University,Beijing 100875,China;2.Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation,Ministry of Education,Beijing 100875,China;3.State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Simulation and Control of Groundwater Pollution,Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences,Beijing 100012,China)
Abstract:There are residual contaminants in the reclaimed water due to the limitations of wastewater treatment technology and operating costs.The quality of the soil and groundwater in the reclaimed water usage areas is bound to deteriorate in the long term.In this research,we collected the types and concentrations of contaminants in these areas through literature investigation and data statistics.We analyzed the effects of organic pollutants (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,persistent organic pollutants,pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals),heavy metals,nutrients,salinity,pH,and microbes in reclaimed water on soil and groundwater environment.Since most reclaimed water is from domestic sewage,attention should be paid to the pollution of the PPCPs and salinity.We suggest adopting contaminant monitoring programs,emergency plans,and relevant management measures to ensure the safety of reclaimed water usage.
Key words:reclaimed water;soil;groundwater;organic contaminants;heavy metals;nutrients;salinity
我国人均水资源量仅有2 300 m3,不足世界平均水平的1/4,是水资源贫乏的国家之一[12],再生水利用对缓解水资源短缺,实现水资源可持续发展有重要意义。再生水是指污水经过适当处理后,达到一定的水质指标,满足某种使用要求,可以再次利用的水[3]。再生水的水质指标低于城市饮用水标准,但高于污染水允许排入地面水体的排放标准[4]。它的使用可减少清水的使用量,进而有效解决水资源短缺问题,减少水资源的浪费。再生水已在世界各国得到了广泛利用,主要包括农林利用、城市杂用、景观娱乐利用、工业回用以及河道和地下水补给等[5]。
随着社会经济及城市化进程快速发展,我国城市生活污水排放量日益增加,我国城镇生活污水由2000年的2210亿t增加到2015年的5352亿t[2]。美国、日本、澳大利亚等国家某些地区也面临水资源短缺,地下水超采等問题,再生水利用对缓解世界各国水资源短缺,实现水资源可持续发展有重要意义。2016年,全国年再生水利用量为5402亿m3。其中,用于景观环境用水3295亿m3,占610%;工业用水1495亿m3,占276%;城市非饮用水323亿m3,占60%;农林牧业用水248亿m3,占46%;地下水补充用水041亿m3,占08%[6]。目前,全国共有21个省级行政区出台了再生水利用的相关法规政策,例如:北京市出台了《北京市节约用水办法》、《关于进一步加强污水处理和再生水利用工作的意见》和《加快污水处理和再生水利用设施建设三年行动方案(2013—2015年)》等管理政策。同时,再生水利用相关技术标准不断完善,2002年以来陆续颁布了一系列再生水利用标准,如《再生水水质标准》、《城市污水再生利用分类》、《城市污水再生利用农田灌溉用水水质》等。
同未经处理或简单处理的污水相比,再生水水质大幅度提高,但是由于成本和工艺限制,再生水中仍然存在一定量的有机污染物、重金属、营养物质、盐离子和微生物,其水质特征还与再生水的来源、管网材质以及运输条件等因素有关。再生水的长期使用,可能会对受纳的土壤和地下水环境产生一定影响,造成相应的生态环境风险。根据前期文献调研可知,虽然研究再生水对土壤或地下水影响的文章比较多,但是这些文章的关注点都只集中于单一介质(土壤或地下水)或者集中于再生水中某类污染物研究,缺乏再生水中所有主要污染物在土壤和地下水的检出分析以及对土壤和地下水影响的研究,因此对再生水的利用及管理缺乏基础数据资料和理论依据。
本文通过文献调研和数据统计,获得了再生水受纳区有机污染物(包括多环芳烃、持久性有机污染物、药物及个人护理品、内分泌干扰物)、重金属、营养物质、盐度、pH值和微生物等的种类和浓度,对再生水受纳区土壤和地下水检出浓度进行了分析,并结合环境统计年报、土壤环境和地下水质量标准,分析和讨论了再生水对受纳区土壤和地下水环境的影响。
[BT(2+1]1再生水中有机污染物对土壤和地下水的影响
通过对该部分的文献调研,再生水中有机污染物主要通过农业灌溉和城市杂用等利用方式进入土壤和地下水,再生水利用时间为短期利用(1~3个月)与长期利用(4~9年)相结合,对再生水受纳区有机污染物数据统计和分析[738],分别得到了这些区域的土壤(图1)和地下水(图2)中有机污染物浓度的最大值和平均值。从图1和2可以看出,多环芳烃(图1中A1-A8,图2 中a1-a6)、持久性有机污染物(图1中B1-B4,图2中b1-b4)、药物及个人护理品(图1中C1-C17,图2中c1-c14)和内分泌干扰物(图1中D1-D6,图2中d1-d6)四类有机污染物在土壤和地下水中均有检出,土壤浓度平均值范围为075 ng/kg~332 μg/kg,最大值范围为150 ng/kg~399 μg/kg;地下水浓度平均值范围为003 ng/L~256 ng/L,最大值范围为008 ng/L~563 ng/L。土壤中有机污染物的检出浓度多数高于地下水中的浓度,且药物及个人护理品和内分泌干扰物在土壤和地下水中检出浓度和频率较高。
1.1再生水中多环芳烃对受纳区土壤和地下水的影响
多环芳烃(Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons,PAHs)是分子中含有两个以上苯环的碳氢化合物,它主要来源于人类活动,尤其是化石燃料的不完全燃烧[8]。由图1中A1-A8的PAHs浓度数据可以看出,低环PAHs(2-3环)在土壤中的平均浓度在075 ng/kg~4012 μg/kg范围内。检出浓度最大的多环芳烃是萘(399 μg/kg),这是因为该研究区萘在土壤中的含量随季节的差异性变化很大,数据的采集时间是在浓度最高的8月份[7]。虽然多环芳烃在整个土层都有检出,但是表层土壤中检出浓度较高,这是由于PAHs是非极性化合物,有较强的疏水性,在迁移过程中更倾向于吸附在固体介质上[8]。对比地下水不同环数的PAHs浓度可以看出,总体上地下水中低环PAHs(2-3环,a1-a4)的浓度高于高环PAHs(4-5环,a5-a6),这是因为Kow(a1,195×103) 1.2再生水中持久性有机污染物对受纳区土壤和地下水的影响 持久性有机污染物(Persistent Organic Pollutants,POPs)是指通过各种环境介质能够长距离迁移并能在环境中长时间存留,进而对人类健康和环境产生严重危害的天然和人工合成的有机污染物[9]。图1中B1-B4为土壤中检出的四种主要POPs,检出浓度都很低,平均值范围为078 μg/kg~281 μg/kg,最大值范围为113 μg/kg~600 μg/kg,且主要在表层土壤中检出,这是因为POPs大多为疏水性物质,更容易被土壤中的腐殖质及有机质吸附。图2中b1-b4为地下水中检出的四种主要POPs,七氯的平均值和最大值比较高,分别为2809 ng/L和15745 ng/L,其余POPs浓度较低,平均值和最大值范围分别为118 ng/L~623 ng/L和225 ng/L~1290 ng/L,这是因为该数据所在的点位七氯本底浓度较高,加上七氯的Kow(26×104)较小,所以七氯容易从土壤迁移到地下水中[10]。 1.3再生水中药物及个人护理品对受纳区土壤和地下水的影响 药物及个人护理品(Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products,PPCPs),是指为了个人健康和化妆原因以及提高家畜生长和健康而使用的各種化学产品,包括各种抗生素、激素、药和香料等[11]。如图1和2所示,PPCPs在再生水受纳区土壤的浓度平均值在068 μg/kg~31850 μg/kg之间,最大值达332 μg/kg;在地下水中的浓度平均值在027 ng/L~256 ng/L之间,最大值达505 ng/L。由于生活污水排放量在逐年增加(图3),因此再生水多数来源于生活污水,而且常规的污水处理工艺一般使用生物法,不能有效去除该类污染物,特别是具有杀菌作用的抗生素和消炎药,所以再生水利用后土壤和地下水中抗生素和消炎药的检出频率和浓度是最高的。由于PPCPs大多是亲水性物质,在持续利用的条件下,亲水性的化合物会随着下渗水流从土壤迁移至地下水中。 1.4再生水中内分泌干扰物对受纳区土壤和地下水的影响
内分泌干扰物(Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals,EDCs)是指环境中存在的能干扰人类或动物内分泌系统诸环节并导致异常效应的物质[1213]。图1中D1-D6和图2中d1-d6分别为再生水受纳区土壤和地下水中检出的主要EDCs。土壤中雌酮和壬基酚的平均濃度相对较高,分别为13590 μg/kg和5620 μg/kg,这和研究地区大量使用该类化合物密切相关。其他3种EDCs在土壤中的浓度相对较低,在270 μg/kg~1041 μg/kg之间。地下水中也检出了较高浓度的壬基酚,平均浓度为16300 ng/L,这是由于淋滤和下渗作用,土壤中的壬基酚顺着土壤剖面进入地下水[19]。
2再生水中重金属对土壤和地下水的影响
通过对该部分的文献调研,再生水相关研究利用方式主要为农业灌溉,利用时间也是短期利用与长期利用相结合,通过对不同再生水利用区土壤和地下水中重金属浓度的统计分析,结果表明,Pb、Cd、Cr、Hg、As、Cu、Zn、Ni这八种重金属在土壤和地下水中均有检出[3964]。土壤中八种重金属浓度平均值范围为018 mg/kg~10790 mg/kg,最大值范围为050 mg/kg~4035 mg/kg;地下水中平均值范围为002 μg/L~3961 μg/L,最大值范围为016 μg/L~140 μg/L。图4中八种重金属在土壤中的平均浓度均符合土壤环境质量标准(GB 15618-1995)[65]二级标准,而Cd、Cr、Hg、Cu、Zn、Ni的最大浓度符合三级标准,Zn的最大值浓度比较高,这是因为Zn在该地本底值较高所导致[39]。
地下水中八种重金属均有检出,浓度平均值范围为002 μg/L~3961 μg/L(图5)。这是因为再生水利用输入土壤的重金属离子可顺着土壤剖面迁移至地下水,根据新修订的地下水质量标准(GB/T 14848-2017)[66],Hg、As、Ni检出浓度的平均值均略超II类水标准,符合III类水标准,而As和Ni的最大检出浓度均超过III类水标准,与当地本底值较高和人为活动有关[40,53]。
近年来,生活污水排放量逐渐增加(图3),再生水多数来源于生活污水,而生活污水中重金属的含量相对较小,再生水的利用对土壤和地下水重金属浓度改变影响较小。
[BT(2+1]3再生水中其他物质或性质对土壤和地下水的影响
3.1再生水中营养物质对土壤和地下水的影响
营养物质与重金属和有机污染物不同,当营养物质浓度低时为植物所需营养元素,但当超过植物所需,则会造成植物营养元素失衡,且多余的营养物质会残留在土壤中,对土壤和地下水造成污染。
乔丽对北京大兴区北野场灌区再生水灌溉进行了研究,发现再生水灌区土壤中的N、P营养物质比其他灌区含量高,N元素主要在表层20 cm处有明显累积,P元素只在土壤表面稍有累积,土壤肥力相应升高[67]。还有研究者发现,再生水中低浓度的磷不会对土壤产生负面影响,但长时间施用含有磷的再生水会使磷累积在土壤表面,随径流进入地表水,促进富营养化[68]。Xu等人研究表明再生水灌溉可导致P含量提高,但短期内影响不显著[69]。刘昆鹏对再生水灌溉区的研究表明,与背景值相比,再生水灌溉土壤中NH+4N含量变化不显著,NO-3N含量和NO-2N含量增加[70]。
当土壤中的硝态氮浓度超过植物需求时,会渗入地下介质中[71],而且细菌可将土壤中的NH+4N转化为NO-3N,它们顺着土壤剖面下渗会导致地下水NO-3N含量超标[72]。尹世洋等人的研究表明,北京地区再生水受纳区地下水含水层硝酸盐氮浓度的最小值为008 mg/L,最大值为117 mg/L,空间变异性较大,但总体污染较小[72]。由于P主要结合在土壤表面,迁移能力较弱,因此地下水中几乎没有P的累积。
3.2再生水盐度对土壤和地下水的影响
再生水中一部分盐离子可被植物或者土壤微生物吸收利用,多余的盐分则会在土壤中累积,对土壤和地下水造成一定的影响。同时由于蒸发率、浸出率、土壤类型等因素的不同,盐分累积对土壤和地下水的影响程度也不同。
Chen等人对北京7个园区不同的再生水灌溉历史进行了现场研究,分析了20个土壤属性,结果表明在再生水灌溉下观察到盐度的积累,再生水灌溉下两个表层的平均电导率增加了约20%;平均钠吸附比在0~10 cm层显著上升40%,10~20 cm层增加70%,同时观察到总硼含量稍有增加[73]。Qian等对美国西部10个高尔夫球场使用再生水和清水分别灌溉时,检测出再生水灌溉下的土壤电导率比清水灌溉下高出187%,钠吸附比也高出481%,4~5年使用再生水灌溉之后土壤Na含量增加89%到95%[74]。这是因为再生水与常规水相比,一般含有较高浓度的盐离子,主要是Na+和Cl,而传统的废污水处理技术不能去除盐分[75]。再生水盐分对土壤的影响主要表现在对植物生长和对土壤结构的影响。有研究表明再生水利用后,植物根系中高浓度的盐会导致土壤—水溶液的渗透势能降低,延缓植物的吸水率,从而影响植物产量[76]。另外,生活污水含硼洗涤剂和清洁剂的使用会导致受纳区土壤中硼浓度增加[73]。
再生水利用对地下水的影响大小与地下水渗流区结构有关。Shang等人在北京市大兴区和通州再生水受纳区观察到了地下水的高电导率,说明地下水盐度有相应累积,且由于渗流区结构的不同,通州地下水污染风险比大兴区高[77]。William等人研究约旦再生水利用区发现,由于水分蒸发较大而导致土壤盐分累积,加上入渗作用,地下水含水层也观察到了盐分累积[78]。吴文勇等人的研究也表明,再生水经包气带入渗后,盐分含量增加[79],这是因为过量Na+会与土壤中的Ca2+和Mg2+发生置换反应,继续通过下渗、淋滤等作用进入地下水,导致地下水出现盐化问题。
3.3再生水pH值对土壤和地下水影响
pH值是反应土壤和地下水酸碱性的指标,土壤pH值发生变化会影响植物营养元素的可用性。研究发现,再生水灌溉后的绿地土壤样品pH值稍有降低,但是由于土壤的缓冲作用,再生水对土壤pH值影响较小[8081]。对城市绿化草坪再生水灌溉区的地下水pH值检测发现,相比于自来水灌溉,再生水灌溉导致地下水的pH值略有降低,降低程度极小,可忽略不计[82]。因此,再生水对土壤和地下水的pH值影响不大。但是,再生水中的污染物协同作用对土壤和地下水pH值的影响不可忽视,例如NO3N氧化、有机物降解、金属离子价态变化等。
3.4再生水中微生物对土壤和地下水影响
再生水中残留的微生物,一方面可以为土壤提供一定的有益菌,另一方面,也可以向土壤和地下水引入潜在的病原微生物。Candela等人对再生水利用区土壤中大肠杆菌群和好氧细菌进行了检测,发现短期内可在表层土壤中发现大肠杆菌,但长期检测其已失去活性[83]。Aiello等人研究发现再生水受纳区土壤表面大肠杆菌和粪便链球菌含量增加,有一些迁移性较强的病原微生物会从土壤迁移至地下水,对饮用水安全造成威胁[84]。Birks检测出了某再生水厂中现场钻孔的地下水中含有军团菌[85]。在Levantesi等的研究中,再生水受纳区地下水仅检出几种微生物,但数量很少[86]。因此,再生水利用对土壤和地下水病源微生物的影响较小,可以通过改变污水处理厂的处理工艺和技术,提高出水水质,来相应降低再生水利用中微生物对土壤和地下水的影响。
4结语
由于再生水主要来自于城市生活污水,药物和个人护理品在土壤和地下水中检出浓度和频率较大,同时再生水会使土壤和地下水盐度增加,这是再生水对土壤和地下水环境的主要影响因素。再生水中重金属、营养物质、pH和微生物对受纳土壤和地下水环境影响相对较小。
再生水对于缓解水资源短缺有重要作用,特别是我国北方严重缺水地区。再生水利用过程中需注意以下两个方面:首先,应对再生水受纳区进行长期监测,制定相应的保护政策和应急预案;其次,应根据受纳区土壤和地下水的使用功能选择再生水使用方式或者提高再生水水质,尽量减少不利影响。
目前,多数研究的关注点多集中于单一介质(土壤或地下水)或集中于某类污染物质研究,研究的周期也比较短,再生水对受纳区域多种介质中的多种污染物长期复合分析研究,将对再生水的利用及管理提升具有重要意义。
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