托福独立写作中的句式变化
2016-07-06李盛
李盛
作为一种语言测试,托福考试重点考查考生的英语语言水平。因此,能够写出正确、流畅的英语作文是考生在托福独立写作单项上取得高分的必备条件。在《托福考试官方指南》(The Official Guide to the TOEFL Test,下文简称OG)中,关于独立写作语言运用方面的要求是这样的:“Language use is the third criterion on which your essay will be judged. To get a top score, an essay must display ‘consistent facility in the use of language. There should be a variety of sentence structures, and word choice should be appropriate.”考生由此可以看出,托福独立写作对于语言的总体要求是consistent facility in the use of language (语言运用和谐流畅),具体要求是a variety of sentence structures (句子结构多样)和word choice should be appropriate (措辞贴切得体)。本文笔者就来介绍如何在托福独立写作中做到句式多样。
首先,考生需要知道什么样的句子是没有变化的,请阅读下面这段文字:“My brother, Tom, is a good example. Tom lived in the country with my grandparents for twelve years. Then he went to the city. He studied in a middle school there. When Tom was living in the countryside, he seldom fell ill. He enjoyed himself in the nature every day. When he went to the city, he gradually felt his throat sore and often coughed.”这段话是笔者的一位学生在平时练习中写的,里面的句子大多是简单句,而句子的主语不是Tom就是he,读来非常单调。这样的表达就是缺乏句式变化的表达,在托福独立写作中是拿不到高分的。此时就需要改变句子结构,使表达方式变得多样。下面笔者就来介绍一些常见的句式变化方法。
1 长、短句结合
英语作文中句子的质量往往受其长度影响,但这并不是说所有的句子都越长越好。在英文写作中,以简单句为代表的短句能够给人留下比较深刻的印象,适用于一针见血或开门见山地表明论点,如“主语+谓语+宾语”结构(Living in the country contributes to our health),或“主语+谓语+双宾语”结构(Sports teach people the spirit of cooperation),或“主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补足语”结构(The development of public transportation makes travel convenient)。而以复合句为代表的长句(包括名词性从句、形容词性从句、副词性从句)则适用于表达非常复杂的逻辑关系,或是用于解释不同现象间的关系,如“Many teenagers complain that they try to communicate with their parents and are eager to get some advice from them; however, it is always futile to do so.”
由于长句和短句功能不同,在托福独立写作中,考生可以用短句来表达关键信息,尤其是引言段中的全文论点(thesis statement)和正文段的主题句(topic sentence),然后用长句来描述引言段的背景信息、对正文段的主题句进行扩展,比如下面这段文字:“Children in modern society have become more difficult to understand than children 50 years ago. They acquire a lot more information and ideas than their predecessors did and they obtain this from various sources, such as mass media and the Internet information and ideas which their parents can never accept because they are not open-minded enough and are reluctant to take on new concepts. Therefore, the generation gap between parents and children today has become bigger, and this impedes communication.”这一段中,写作者在开头直接用一个短句点明主要观点,然后用几个复杂长句进行阐释,长短句交替出现,避免了枯燥、乏味的问题。
2 松散句和圆周句结合
松散句(loose sentences)是指那些在句子开头就先给出中心信息,然后再在后面附加大量修饰语或细节进行补充说明的句子。也就是说,松散句会把主要信息放在次要信息之前,例如:“We can get a lot of information about various products when we watch commercials.”圆周句(periodic sentences)则会把最关键的信息放在整句话的结尾或比较靠后的位置上,即将次要信息放在主要信息之前,形成欲扬先抑或欲抑先扬的效果,例如:“It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.”一般来说,松散句相对简单、易懂、自然、直接,圆周句则比较复杂、庄重、正式、文雅。考生在写独立写作部分的作文时可以将两者结合起来,以使文章错落有致。
3 使用分词结构
写作时,考生们基本都会有意识地去使用一些状语从句和定语从句。然而,从句使用过多,也会显得单调。因此,考生可以尝试将一些从句变为分词结构。
1. 在状语从句中,如果从句主语和主句主语一致,可以使用分词结构。首先,考生要确认从句主语与主句主语一致。然后,考生可以去掉从句主语,将从句谓语动词改成合适的分词。最后,考生可以根据句意删除或保留从属连词(如表示时间的before、since、as、after、while、when和表示原因的because、since、as等)。比如下面三组句子。
修改前:While technology creates new jobs in some sectors of economy, it takes away jobs in others.
修改后:While creating new jobs in some sectors of economy, technology takes away jobs in others.
修改前:As he gradually got used to the way of life here, he became less homesick.
修改后:Gradually getting used to the way of life here, he became less homesick.
修改前:When he was asked about his recent life, he kept silent.
修改后:When asked about his recent life, he kept silent.
2. 在定语从句中,如果先行词在从句中做主语,也可以使用分词结构,即将定语从句改为现在分词或过去分词。例如,“People who live in the country are often friendly”可以改为“People living in the country are often friendly”,“Children who are raised in big families can get on well with others”可以改为“Children raised in big families can get on well with others”。
4 状语前置
除了使用分词结构来改变句子开头,考生还可以将由副词、介词短语、动词不定式等构成的状语结构放在句首。这样不仅能使句式发生变化,还能赋予句子一种长短相间的节奏感。比如下面几句话。
Undoubtedly, teenagers are easily influenced by the violent content in those movies.
Without doubt, technology has changed the way individuals interact with each other in contemporary society.
To alleviate traffic congestion, the municipal government should encourage people to use public transport.
5 使用倒装句
写作时,考生还可以采用倒装结构来变换句式,以对句中的重点信息加以强调。英文写作中常用的倒装结构有五种。
1. 介词短语作地点状语置于句首,主谓完全倒装,比如:“On the top of the mountain stands a temple.”
2. 否定词(如seldom、not only、under no circumstances、by no means等)提前,主谓部分倒装,比如:“Seldom do people realize that pollution has brought about some serious problems.”
3. Only位于句首修饰状语,主谓部分倒装,比如:“Only in this way can the problem of child obesity be effectively controlled.”
4. “so … that …”结构中的“so + adj./adv.”置于句首,主谓完全倒装,比如:“So valuable is water that we cannot afford to waste it.”
5. 分词位于句首,主谓完全倒装,比如:“Adding to societal changes today is an enormous stockpile of information.”
6 使用强调句
除了使用倒装句,考生同样可以使用强调句来对句子的重点信息进行有效强调。强调句的结构通常为“It is/was +被强调部分+ that …”,例如:“It is for the benefit of maintaining the ecological balance that human beings ought to protect the endangered animal species.”一般来说,在托福独立写作中,强调句多用于以下三种情况:①在开头段提出论点;②在正文段末进行小结;③在结尾段再次强调自己的论点。
7 添加插入语
除了在句首部分进行变化,考生也可以在句子中间使用插入语结构,以增强句子的节奏感。插入语既可以是单词、短语,也可以是句子。比如“The computer, an indispensable part of our life, has brought us great convenience”或“College students, lacking social experience, are easily cheated”。
8 使用问句
在写作中,除了使用陈述句结构,考生偶尔也可以使用一些问句,如修辞疑问句(rhetorical question,类似于中文的设问句)、反问句(echo question)和感叹疑问句(exclamatory question),以使句式更加丰富。比如:“If there were no Internet, how could people get various types of information immediately?”又如:“Does studying together with a group of people really improve efficiency? The answer is definitely no!”
9 使用过渡词
除了笔者上文介绍的这些方法,考生在写作时还要注意上下文的衔接。对于托福独立写作,高质量的文章一定要行文流畅,各部分的起承转合不能有生涩之感。而衔接的主要目的就是要把文章中各部分的内容有机地连接起来,使其成为一个整体,帮助阅读者更加清楚、准确地判断各部分之间的关系,更好地把握全文逻辑。这一点在托福独立写作评分标准关于结构(Organization)的要求中也有强调。那么要做到这一点,最简单的方法就是使用过渡词。以下是笔者列出的一些常见的过渡词,供考生参考。
1. 表对比:in contrast、on the contrary、while、whereas、on the other hand、nevertheless
2. 表举例:for example、for instance、such as
3. 表顺序:to begin with、what is more、last but not least、first and foremost、secondly、in addition、in the first place
4. 表递进:besides、furthermore、moreover
5. 表原因:due to、thanks to、owing to、because of、because、as、for、since
6. 表结果:as a result、thus、hence、therefore、 consequently
7. 表总结:on the whole、in conclusion、in short、to sum up
笔者在上面提到的这些方法并不是单独使用的,往往是结合在一起使用。不过,各位考生不要误以为句式多样就是要多写长难句,殊不知滥用长难句会使语言变得繁冗、拖沓。比如说,考生若想表达“Mary是一个漂亮的女孩子”,写成“Mary is a beautiful girl”就可以了,如果偏要写成“Mary is a girl who is beautiful”,句子看上去是变长了,还用了定语从句,但实际上显得非常累赘。