Ethnicity and the Nature of Frontiers： the Characteristics of Urban Development in Xinjiang

He Yimin

Abstract：Located in northwest China， and covering an area of 166 square kilometers， Xinjiang is Chinas largest province. The civilization in Xinjiang started very early， and there was already human activity as early as the Paleolithic period. More than 2000 years ago， there were already several cities and kingdoms there. Because Xinjiang is located in central Asia， and is a crossroads between the east and west， many cultures and people communicated， exchanged and fused there—this had an important influence on the urban development in Xinjiang. Xinjiang has been an important part of China since the Han dynasty； It borders with several countries； it has been playing an important function in consolidating national defense， and safeguarding the national security.Meanwhile， it has also been overseeing economic and cultural exchanges with neighboring countries.This has deeply influenced urban development in Xinjiang. The military and border trade function of these cities in Xinjiang have been prominent from early times. Since the Qing Dynasty， ethnicity and the concept of frontier have constituted an important feature of the urban development in Xinjiang.

I.Multi-ethnicity， Multiculturalism and Cities in Xinjiang

1. Xinjiang-a fusion place for multi-ethnicity and multi-culturalism

Xinjiang is populated by many different ethnic minorities. It has been called a musem of the worlds races. During its history， many tribes， and ethnic groups from the east and the west haveinteracted， merged and made exchanges here. Xinjiang has been infiltrated and nurtured by different cultures， ethnic groups and religions from both the east and the west.Hence， it is complex， heterogeneous， yet also has a character of compatibility. This is reflected in its cities.

During the long process of its history， the specific geographic location of the Western Regions（Xinjiang） has determined its important position in connecting the east with the west in trade， ethnic migration， religious transmission and cultural exchange， etc. Historically， the Western Regions（Xinjiang） was an important stage for several of the worlds famous religions， civilizations， writing systems and ancient nomadic peoples migration activities.The result of the religious transmission， civilization exchange， writing system transmission， and ethnic migration gives Xinjiang a sense of being at the crossroads of the fusion between westernand eastern cultures. This kind of intersection and fusion is especially tangible and visual in the history of Xinjiangs urban development.

2.The influence of multi-ethnicity and multiculturalism on the cities of Xinjiang during the Qing period and Republican eraSince ancient times， the Western Regions（Xinjiang） has been inhabited by many ethnic groups.Although they differed with regard to their languages， beliefs and customs， a unique social environment with regional characteristics gradually formed. The unique social environment， combined with the multi-ethnicity as well as the diversity and generalization in religious beliefs has influenced various aspects of Xinjiang cities， including their formation， shape， economics and daily life.Xinjiang cities have formed an urban style with its own characteristics. Since the Qing dynasty，the influence of multiculturalism on Xinjiang cities became more prominent， and it is especially reflected in the following aspects：

1）Multi-ethnicity and multiculturalism strongly influenced the spatial arrangement and construction of the cities in the Qing dynasty

In the Qing dynasty， the multi-ethnicity and multiculturalism was very obvious， and it directly influencedurban spatial arrangement and construction. Because the Qing court enhanced its rule in Xinjiang， and the culture of the ruling class was the dominant culture， the culture of central China had a strong impact on Xinjiang. This was reflected in the new citiesbuilt during the Qing. The shape and spatial arrangement of the cities were based on the criteria of inland China.However， the influence of multi-ethnicity and multiculturalismwas also fully reflected in the urban constructions.

2） A new characteristic， i.e.the “two-tiered -city” structure， or even “multi-tiered city” structure， was formed as the result of the interaction between inland Han culture and the multi-ethnic cultures during the process of Xinjiangs urban construction in the Qing dynasty

The “two tiered city” framework was a typical characteristic of Xinjiangs urban spatial structure during the Qing period. After the Qing court unified Xinjiang， a ruling policy of “segregation between Han and Hui” was implemented. New cities were built along side the old cities（the Hui city）. These were where the administration of the Qing court，and the military garrisons were located， and the officials， troops and Han businessmen lived. These newly built cities，together with original ones， formed a framework of “two-tiered cities”. The spatial framework of the Hui city was obviously influenced by Islam.Its scale was large； the number of residents great； it took the mosque as the center； trade was developed； and its economic function were obvious. The new cities （the Han city） were the place of official administration and military post；their scale was small and the number of the residents was small as well； it mainly shouldered the administrative and military role of the city； and its spatial arrangement and construction techniques were influenced by inland urban culture. This policy had a deep influence to the urban spatial framework of Xinjiang. Until the middle of 20th century， the framework of “two tiered cities”basically did not change； and urban development was basically limited within the original city walls.

In eastern Xinjiang， in addition to the “two tiered city”framework， there was also a“triple tiered city” framework.Both the urban centerscities of Hami and Turpan were divided into a Han town and a Hui town. The Han town of Hami wasfurther divided into a new town and old town.Hence， a “triple tiered city” framework was formed. One of the purposes for creating this “two tiered city” framework was to segregate the Han from the other ethnic groups，such as the Hui，with a geographical space.By doing so，direct contact between the two sides was avoided， and as a result， ethnic conflicts were side stepped. At the same time， it was also convenient for the governments management and control.

3） The multi-ethnicity and multiculturalismal so had an important influence on the customs of the urban residents in Xinjiang during the Qing and Republican era

Due to historical， political， economic and cultural reasons， every ethnic group has their own unique customs， which differed from each other，yet， there were also mutual influences between them. In the Qing dynasty and Republican era， the Han people of Xinjiang， no matter whether they were at home or outside， kept various customs passed down from their ancestors. The Manchu in Xinjiang during the Qing period had their own culture， they spoke their own language， and Shamanism （their religion） still had a certain influence on their lives.Those ethnic groups who believes in Islam， such as the Uyghur， Salter，and Kirghiz—their customs could not be separated from their religion. In addition，there were many Mongolians in Xinjiang， and they believed in Tibetan Buddhism. In the daily life of Xinjiang cities， different ethnic groups had brought different influences to the cities.

3. The Change of Ethnicity and Multiculturalism in the cities of Xinjiang after the Middle of the 20th century

In the middle of the 20th century， following the founding of the Peoples Republic of China， Xinjiang was liberated peacefully， and Xinjiang stepped into a new historical stage. The cities of Xinjiang experienced very big changes during the latter half of the 20th century. Within these changes， ethnicity and multiculturalism also deeply influenced the urban development of Xinjiang.

After the founding of new China， the population of Xinjiang greatly increased， and at the same time， the ethnic composition of the population also changed a lot.At the end of 2011， the total population of Xinjiang was 22.0871 million，among which the population of the different ethnic groups was 60%.The pluralism of the ethnic composition in Xinjiang has a direct influence on the development of Xinjiang. Firstly， the national identity and Chinese national identity was strengthened. Secondly， the establishment of the ethnic autonomous region， prefectures， counties and township senabled all ethnic groups in Xinjiang to have more autonomous rights under the leadership of the Communist Party of China. Since the peaceful liberation of Xinjiang， political unification and cultural pluralism became the main features for development.

After the founding of new China， the ethnicity of the cities in Xinjiang developed relatively comprehensively，and cultural pluralism has been both accepted and promoted. Ethnic unity and ethnic fusion are newly reflected in the urban spatial arrangement and urban forms. The ethnic segregation implemented in the Qing and Republican era has disappeared， and an ideology of ethnic fusion has been fully applied in Xinjiangs urban planning and construction.

The 20th century was an important period for urban development in Xinjiang.The ethnic characteristics of the cities also experienced some new changes， which had a deep influence on urban construction， religion， education， customs， material life and spiritual life. On one hand， all the ethnic groups in Xinjiang have kept the traditions and culture passed down from their ancestors， but， on the other hand， they have also gradually absorbed the new culture of the times， and this results in the cities of Xinjiang not only having ethnic and local features， but also the features of the times. Following the implementation of the New Silk Road Strategy， Xinjiang is facing a new opportunity for development， and its ethnic features and pluralism will also exhibit some new characteristics.

II.Military Affairs and Border Trade： the Frontier Characteristics of Xinjiang Cities

The frontier is that area which lies close to the border between one country and another.The frontier is not only a geographical concept， but also a historical concept. The frontier will always show changes following a nations rise and fall. Having been a frontier area for a long time， Xinjiangs urban development has been influenced by its geographical location—and，this is mainly reflected in the fact that the cities of Xinjiang have a very obvious function in both military affairs and border trade.

1. The cities have an outstanding military function.

As a border area between different countries， one important function of the frontier area is to enhance military defense and ensure national security.Therefore， frontier cities often have a very important military function. Xinjiang is located in an area important for the national defense of northwest China， and its military significance has never changed. From the perspective of national defense， the cities of Xinjiang not only have an important position in economics， social development， but also have an important military significance. The construction， development and changes of the cities all have a close relationship with defense. From the point of view of history， in the Western Regions（Xinjiang），those cities whose main function was military were built before those whose main function was economic. From the perspective of urban function and types， since the Han dynasty， the function of the capitals of different kingdoms in the Western Regions existed first as political and military centers，and then， following the expansion of the cities and the growth of the populations， their external economic exchanges increased and the cities commercial function also gradually developed.

2. The border trade character of cities in Xinjiang

As a frontier area in West China， Xinjiang neighbors with 8 countries， and its boundary is 5400 kilometers long.Hence， its export and import trade is very advanced，and this has become an important force that propels urban development. Among the 87 cities and counties in Xinjiang， around 38% of cities or towns are frontier cities and towns， and 66.7% function as port cities. Especially after the implementation of reform and open policy， the opened ports and various border trade activities not only improved the development of frontier cities and towns， but，their urban system also gradually progressed and developed.The frontier area has an important regional political，economic and cultural advantage，Hence， an important function of frontier cities is communication with other countries on politics， economics and culture. Border trade becomes an import function of frontier cities.

In conclusion，since the 20th century， the frontier characteristics of the cities in Xinjiang have undergone changes. The role of Xinjiang cities in safeguarding the national security，and the stability of frontier areahas become more and more pronounced， and their role in developing border trade has also becomes more important. Xinjiangs close regional relations with central Asia enables Xinjiang cities to play a very important role in frontier security. Any change in regional political status and social order in Xinjiang will bring about an overall influence. With economics， there is a complementary relationship between Xinjiang and other Central Asian countries， and their mutual dependence is very deep. With regard to religion， the ethnic people living in Xinjiang and the Central Asian countries are mostly cross-border ethnic groups， and they mostly believe in Islam. A common cultural background and ethnic identity gives the ethnic religious issue international characteristics. From the 1990s to the present， the Central Asian areas have been facing a serious threat of international terrorism， religious extremism and ethnic separatism. These three movements are influencing the security in Central Asia， and greatly damaging and impacting the political stability， social order， and economic development of the countries in Central Asia. Hence， the cities of Xinjiang have a very important position and role in safeguarding the nations security. A deep recognition of Xinjiang cities frontier feature is very important for Xinjiang to keep its characteristics during the process of “new urbanization” and for walking on a correct path of new urbanization which is appropriate for the status of Xinjiang.

Key Words： ethnicity； the nature of frontiers； Xinjiang； cities

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