NTS/IL-8信号通路与恶性肿瘤相关性的研究进展
2014-04-05龙欣欣叶英楠于津浦
龙欣欣,叶英楠,李 慧,于津浦
(1天津医科大学肿瘤医院,国家肿瘤临床医学研究中心,天津300060;2天津市肿瘤免疫与生物治疗重点实验室)
神经降压素(NTS)是由13个氨基酸组成的神经肽,在中枢神经、心血管、呼吸、消化、内分泌、免疫等系统中发挥重要作用[1]。近年研究证实NTS与结肠癌、乳腺癌、前列腺癌、胰腺癌和肝癌等多种恶性肿瘤的生长和侵袭密切相关。神经降压素/白细胞介素-8(NTS/IL-8)通路在肿瘤的恶性预后中发挥重要作用[2];结肠癌、乳腺癌、前列腺癌、胰腺癌、肝癌等多种恶性肿瘤组织中存在NTS/IL-8通路异常活化[3~7]。现就NTS/IL-8通路与恶性肿瘤的相关性研究进展综述如下。
1 NTS/IL-8通路激活途径
NTS/IL-8通路激活通过NTS与细胞膜上的神经降压素受体(NTR)结合而发挥作用。NTR属于G蛋白偶联受体,有NTR1、2、3三种亚型,其中 NTR1为高亲和力受体。NTS与NTR1结合之后,活化的NTR1便可通过核因子-κB(NF-κB)途径、细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)途径引起IL-8表达增加,分泌增多。
1.1 NF-κB 途径 NF-κB 为一个结构高度保守的转录因子蛋白家族,包括5个亚单位:p50(NF-κB1)、p52(NF-κB2)、p65(RelA,NF-κB3)、RelB 和Rel(cRel)。两个亚基通过形成的同源和(或)异源二聚体与靶基因上特定的序列(NF-κB位点)结合调控基因转录[8~10]。最常见的 NF-κB 二聚体是p65与 p50组成的异二聚体[11,12]。在静息细胞中,大部分NF-κB聚集在胞质内并与抑制因子IκB结合处于失活状态。当细胞受到刺激,可磷酸化IκB从而激活NF-κB途径。通常情况下,胞质内的IκB激酶可磷酸化IκB上的Ser32/Ser36位点,并促进IκB 泛素化而降解[13,14],失去 IκB 抑制的 NF-κB 在胞质内聚集并向核内转移,进而在细胞核内通过激活多种基因转录而发挥作用。
然而在 NTS/IL-8通路中,激活 NF-κB途径需要依赖小鸟苷酸三磷酸酶(Rho GTP酶)。Rho GTP酶是一种单体G蛋白,属于Ras超家族成员之一。目前发现的Rho GTP酶家族至少有18种,其参与细胞的增殖、分化、凋亡、恶变和侵袭等多个生物学过程。G蛋白偶联受体接受刺激后可磷酸化Rho GTP酶,使自身 GDP转化为 GTP,酶活性得到激活[15]。NTS与NTR1结合后,NTR1便以此方式激活RhoA。活化的RhoA可激活NF-κB,这个过程并不依赖IκB激酶,而是通过直接磷酸化IκB的Ser32/Ser36位点激活NF-κB。目前已发现在IL-8的启动子上有p65的结合位点,且NF-κB可上调IL-8的表达[16]。
除了激活Rho GTP酶,NTS激活NF-κB还可借助于激活依赖Ca2+释放的蛋白激酶C(PKC)系统。NTS与NTR1结合后,NTR1通过偶联的G蛋白激活磷酸脂酶C,后者可将细胞膜上的脂酰肌醇4,5-二磷酸分解为二酰甘油和1,4,5-三磷酸肌醇。1,4,5-三磷酸肌醇动员细胞内内质网中的Ca2+释放到胞质中与钙调蛋白结合,而二酰甘油在Ca2+的协同可下激活PKC[17]。活化的PKC不仅参与NTS介导的IκB磷酸化,促进IκB降解,还参与p65磷酸化,增加其转录活性[18]。
1.2 Erk途径 Erk 1/2途径属于经典的丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPKs)信号转导途径。细胞膜上的酪氨酸激酶受体接受刺激后,可募集胞质内的生长因子受体结合蛋白2,后者与胞质中的鸟苷酸交换因子结合形成复合物,并将其转移至细胞膜上。鸟苷酸交换因子可催化Ras上的GDP转化为GTP,从而激活Ras。激活的Ras可磷酸化Raf蛋白并将其固定于细胞膜上。Raf具有丝/苏氨酸激酶活性,能激活MAPK级联信号通路,MAPK激酶进一步磷酸化激活Erk1/2[19]。当NTS与NTR1结合后,可通过上述途经激活 Ras,进一步激活 Erk1/2。活化的ERK1/2可磷酸化多种核转录因子如Elk-1、Ets21、c2Myc、Sap1a、Tal、STAT、c2jun 及 ATF2 等[20]。磷酸化的Elk-1进一步激活细胞内重要的转录因子激活子蛋白-1(AP-1)。磷酸化的Elk-1还可诱导c-fos基因活化,增加c-fos蛋白合成,后者通过自身二聚化或与c-Jun形成异源二聚体,从而激活AP-1的转录活性[21]。近年来有研究表明IL-8的启动子上存在AP-1的结合位点,且AP-1可增加IL-8的转录活性,因而NTS可通过Erk途径诱导AP-1高表达,从而上调 IL-8 的表达[3,4]。
2 NTS/IL-8通路与恶性肿瘤的关系
NTS/IL-8通路主要通过作用于肿瘤细胞和肿瘤微环境而影响肿瘤的增殖、侵袭和转移等多个过程,与多种肿瘤的不良预后密切相关。NTS/IL-8通路活化不仅可促进肿瘤细胞自身增殖,还可上调SOX2、OCT4、NANOG等基因使肿瘤细胞获得干细胞特征,诱导肿瘤细胞上皮间质转化。
NTS/IL-8通路激活后,IL-8释放增加,后者是一种由单核巨噬细胞分泌的CXC型炎症趋化因子,可选择性趋化中性粒细胞、肿瘤相关巨噬细胞,促进多种细胞因子和生长因子释放,加速局部炎症微环境形成;部分肿瘤细胞也可分泌IL-8,并在肿瘤的增殖、分化、血管生成、侵袭和转移方面发挥重要作用[8~11]。
目前,NTS已作为一种新的生物标志物用于肿瘤的检测。有学者通过小鼠模型体外实验论证了NTR1表达水平与腺癌和鳞癌的恶性程度有关[22];Swift等[23]也证实NTR1表达水平与前列腺癌的分化程度有关;在头颈部鳞癌中,NTR1被认为是不良预后的标志[24]。NTS/NTR-1信号通路活化可促使结肠癌癌前病变畸变隐窝发展为结肠腺瘤[25]。Sgourakis等[26]提出血清NTS和IL-8水平联合检测在结肠肿瘤诊断中有一定意义。
目前针对NTS及NTS/IL-8通路的靶向药物成为新的研究热点。NTR-1的最常用小分子抑制剂SR48692有潜在抗肿瘤作用,有研究表明其可依赖表皮生长因子受体从而抑制非小细胞肺癌细胞增殖,并可通过诱导凋亡和捕获细胞周期来抑制恶性黑色素瘤增殖[27,28]。除了小分子抑制剂,姜黄素被发现可通过阻断NTS/IL-8通路,减少IL-8表达,减弱结肠癌的侵袭性[29];还可抑制肌质网释放Ca2+从而并减弱Ca2+依赖型PKC的活性,阻断NTS激活NF-κB途径,减少IL-8表达和释放;能抑制c-fos、c-jun与DNA形成复合体,减弱AP-1的转录活性,从而下调 IL-8 的表达[30,31]。Wang 等[32]发现一种组蛋白脱乙酰酶抑制剂丁酸钠可直接抑制NTR1的表达并减弱其功能,抑制IL-8表达,认为NTR1抑制剂将在阻止结肠癌侵袭和转移上发挥重要作用。此外,有学者[33]还发现NTR1在放射性靶向药物研究方面的重要价值,放射性药物偶联NTS类似物后,可作为NTR1阳性肿瘤的示踪剂,用于肿瘤的诊断与治疗。Valerie等[34]也提出应用NTR1抑制剂可提高前列腺癌细胞对电离辐射的敏感性。
除阻断NTR1外,阻断IL-8受体同样具有治疗作用。Singh等[35]在体外恶性黑色素瘤模型中发现,应用趋化因子受体(CXCR)小分子抑制剂可抑制瘤细胞增殖和血管生成。在乳腺癌的治疗中,Singh等[36]发现阻断CXCR1可有效降低乳腺癌干细胞样细胞的活性,并与人类表皮生长因子受体2(HER2)抑制剂起到协同作用,增强治疗效果。Tazzyman等[37]证实CXCR2拮抗剂可抑制小鼠肺癌组织中性粒细胞浸润,并延缓肿瘤生长,认为CXCR2拮抗剂有望成为肺癌治疗的新手段。
综上所述,NTS/IL-8通路作用机制的阐明揭示了在恶性肿瘤中神经肽类物质介导局部炎症形成的过程,表明神经肽、炎症与肿瘤不良预后有关。NTS有望成为一项重要的标志物,为临床判断肿瘤恶性程度和评估肿瘤患者预后提供参考。同时,关于NTS/IL-8通路的研究结果也给恶性肿瘤靶向药物的研究带来了新的契机。尽管目前针对该通路中存在的靶向位点的研究还只局限于体外实验和动物模型,但仍存在进一步研发的潜力和临床应用价值。
[1]Bugni,JM,Rabadi LA,Jubbal K,et al.The neurotensin receptor-1 promotes tumor development in a sporadic but not an inflammation-associated mouse model of colon cancer[J].Int J Cancer,2012,130(8):1798-1805.
[2]Myers RM,Shearman JW,Kitching MO,et al.Cancer,chemistry,and the cell:molecules that interact with the neurotensin receptors[J].ACS Chem Biol,2009,4(7):503-525.
[3]Zhao D,Keates AC,Kuhnt-Moore S,et al.Signal transduction pathways mediating neurotensin-stimulated interleukin-8 expression in human colonocytes[J].J Biol Chem,2001,276(48):44464-44471.
[4]Olszewski U,Hamilton G.Neurotensin signaling induces intracellular alkalinization and interleukin-8 expression in human pancreatic cancer cells[J].Mol Oncol,2009,3(3):204-213.
[5]Olszewski U,Hlozek M,Hamilton G.Activation of Na+/H+exchanger 1 by neurotensin signaling in pancreatic cancer cell lines[J].Biochem Biophys Res Commun,2010,393(3):414-419.
[6]Tang KH,Ma S,Lee TK,et al.CD133(+)liver tumor-initiating cells promote tumor angiogenesis,growth,and self-renewal through neurotensin/interleukin-8/CXCL1 signaling[J]. Hepatology,2012,55(3):807-820.
[7]Yu J,Ren X,Chen Y,et al.Dysfunctional activation of neurotensin/IL-8 pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma is associated with increased inflammatory response in microenvironment,more epithelial mesenchymal transition in cancer and worse prognosis in patients[J].PLoS One,2013,8(2):e56069.
[8]Doll D,Keller L,Maak M,et al.Differential expression of the chemokines GRO-2,GRO-3,and interleukin-8 in colon cancer and their impact on metastatic disease and survival[J].Int J Colorectal Dis,2010,25(5):573-581.
[9]Snoussi K,Mahfoudh W,Bouaouina N,et al.Combined effects of IL-8 and CXCR2 gene polymorphisms on breast cancer susceptibility and aggressiveness[J].BMC Cancer,2010,10:283.
[10]Welling TH,Fu S,Wan S,et al.Elevated serum IL-8 is associated with the presence of hepatocellular carcinoma and independently predicts survival[J].Cancer Invest,2012,30(10):689-697.
[11] Waugh DJ,Wilson C.The interleukin-8 pathway in cancer[J].Clin Cancer Res,2008,14(21):6735-6741.
[12]Umezawa K.Possible role of peritoneal NF-kappaB in peripheral inflammation and cancer:lessons from the inhibitor DHMEQ[J].Biomed Pharmacother,2011,65(4):252-259.
[13]Bijli KM,Fazal F,Rahman A.Regulation of Rela/p65 and endothelial cell inflammation by proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2[J].Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol,2012,47(5):660-668.
[14]Yong Y,Choi SW,Choi HJ,et al.Exogenous signal-independent nuclear IkappaB kinase activation triggered by Nkx3.2 enables constitutive nuclear degradation of IkappaB-alpha in chondrocytes[J].Mol Cell Biol,2011,31(14):2802-2816.
[16]Khanjani S,Terzidou V,Johnson MR,et al.NFkappaB and AP-1 drive human myometrial IL8 expression[J].Mediators Inflamm,2012,2012:504952.
[17]Muller KM,Tveteraas IH,Aasrum M,et al.Role of protein kinase C and epidermal growth factor receptor signalling in growth stimulation by neurotensin in colon carcinoma cells[J].BMC Cancer,2011,11:421.
[18]Zhao D,Zhan Y,Zeng H,et al.Neurotensin stimulates interleukin-8 expression through modulation of I kappa B alpha phosphorylation and p65 transcriptional activity:involvement of protein kinase C alpha[J].Mol Pharmacol,2005,67(6):2025-2031.
[19]Saini KS,Loi S,de Azambuja E,et al.Targeting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and Raf/MEK/ERK pathways in the treatment of breast cancer[J].Cancer Treat Rev,2013,39(8):935-946.
[20]Schmitt JM,Abell E,Wagner A,et al.ERK activation and cell growth require CaM kinases in MCF-7 breast cancer cells[J].Mol Cell Biochem,2010,335(1-2):155-171.
[21]Maritz MF,van der Watt PJ,Holderness N,et al.Inhibition of AP-1 suppresses cervical cancer cell proliferation and is associated with p21 expression[J].Biol Chem,2011,392(5):439-448.
[22]Haase C,Bergmann R,Oswald J,et al.Neurotensin receptors in adeno-and squamous cell carcinoma[J].Anticancer Res,2006,26(5A):3527-3533.
[23]Swift SL,Burns JE,Maitland NJ.Altered expression of neurotensin receptors is associated with the differentiation state of prostate cancer[J].Cancer Res,2010,70(1):347-356.
[24]Shimizu S.Tsukada J,Sugimoto T,et al.Identification of a novel therapeutic target for head and neck squamous cell carcinomas:a role for the neurotensin-neurotensin receptor 1 oncogenic signaling pathway[J].Int J Cancer,2008,123(8):1816-1823.
[25]Chowdhury MA,Peters AA,Roberts-Thomson SJ,et al.Effects of differentiation on purinergic and neurotensin-mediated calcium signaling in human HT-29 colon cancer cells[J].Biochem Biophys Res Commun,2013,439(1):35-39.
[26]Sgourakis G,Papapanagiotou A,Kontovounisios C,et al.The combined use of serum neurotensin and IL-8 as screening markers for colorectal cancer[J].Tumour Biol,2014,35(6):5993-6002.
[27]Moody TW,Chan DC,Mantey SA,et al.SR48692 inhibits nonsmall cell lung cancer proliferation in an EGF receptor-dependent manner[J].Life Sci,2014,100(1):25-34.
[28] Zhang Y,Zhu S,Yi L,et al.Neurotensin receptor1 antagonist SR48692 reduces proliferation by inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in melanoma cells[J].Mol Cell Biochem,2014,389(1-2):1-8.
[29]Wang X,Wang Q,Ives KL,et al.Curcumin inhibits neurotensin-mediated interleukin-8 production and migration of HCT116 human colon cancer cells[J].Clin Cancer Res,2006,12(18):5346-5355.
[30]Logan-Smith MJ,Lockyer PJ,East JM,et al.Curcumin,a molecule that inhibits the Ca2+-ATPase of sarcoplasmic reticulum but increases the rate of accumulation of Ca2+[J].J Biol Chem,2001,276(50):46905-46911.
[31]Hahm ER,Cheon G,Lee J,et al.New and known symmetrical curcumin derivatives inhibit the formation of Fos-Jun-DNA complex[J].Cancer Lett,2002,184(1):89-96.
[32]Wang X,Jackson LN,Johnson SM,et al.Suppression of neurotensin receptor type 1 expression and function by histone deacetylase inhibitors in human colorectal cancers[J].Mol Cancer Ther,2010,9(8):2389-2398.
[33]Garcia-Garayoa E,Bluenstein P,Blanc A,et al.A stable neurotensin-based radiopharmaceutical for targeted imaging and therapy of neurotensin receptor-positive tumours[J].Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging,2009,36(1):37-47.
[34]Valerie NC,Casarez EV,Dasilva JO,et al.Inhibition of neurotensin receptor 1 selectively sensitizes prostate cancer to ionizing radiation[J].Cancer Res,2011,71(21):6817-6826.
[35]Singh S,Sadanandam A,Nannuru KC,et al.Small-molecule antagonists for CXCR2 and CXCR1 inhibit human melanoma growth by decreasing tumor cell proliferation,survival,and angiogenesis[J].Clin Cancer Res,2009,15(7):2380-2386.
[36]Singh JK,Farnie G,Bundred NJ,et al.Targeting CXCR1/2 significantly reduces breast cancer stem cell activity and increases the efficacy of inhibiting HER2 via HER2-dependent and-independent mechanisms[J].Clin Cancer Res,2013,19(3):643-656.
[37]Tazzyman S,Barry ST,Ashton S,et al.Inhibition of neutrophil infiltration into A549 lung tumors in vitro and in vivo using a CXCR2-specific antagonist is associated with reduced tumor growth[J].Int J Cancer,2011,129(4):847-858.