婴儿痉挛症的治疗和预后研究进展
2011-01-20综述张月华审校
陈 莹 综述 张月华 审校
1 治疗
1.1 ACTH和糖皮质激素 自Sorel和Dusaucy(1958)报道ACTH 治疗IS有效以来,一直是治疗IS的首选药物之一。虽然ACTH和糖皮质激素被广泛使用,但方案并不一致。大量临床研究表明[10~13]:ACTH大剂量(120~160 U)和小剂量(20~40 U)在控制痉挛发作、改善EEG高峰节律紊乱、降低复发率及改善认知功能等方面并无差异,但长期随访表明,在改善认知功能方面小剂量优于大剂量[10,11],随着ACTH剂量增加,其不良反应风险也不断增加。目前,中国、日本和芬兰多采用小剂量ACTH治疗。
芬兰Heiskala等[14]推荐的方案:先予维生素B6150~200 mg,3~4 d,后予ACTH 3 U·kg-1·d-1,如果反应良好,2周后逐渐减停,症状性IS患儿应用4周后再逐渐减停;如果反应不好,无论隐源性抑或症状性IS,2周后加量至6 U·kg-1·d-1,如仍无效,2周后加量至12 U·kg-1·d-1,此剂量维持2周后逐渐减量,每隔1周,减量一半。Heiskala等[14]用此方案治疗30例IS患儿,应用ACTH小剂量2~3周,6例隐源性及8例症状性IS患儿的痉挛发作缓解, 4/8例仅对大剂量ACTH有反应,总有效率60%,但该项研究未提供长期随访的结果。
中国推荐方案[15]:ACTH 20 U·d-1,肌内注射或静脉注射,应用2周,如果症状完全控制,改用泼尼松2 mg·kg-1·d-1,连用2周。如对ACTH无反应,ACTH可加量至30~40 U·d-1,再用4周。北京大学第一医院儿科2007年以前采用的方案为:ACTH 25 U·d-1,静脉注射,应用2周,症状无缓解,则加量至40 U·d-1,再用2周;若有效,则维持原量再用2周,ACTH总疗程为4周,随后改用泼尼松1.5~2 mg·kg-1·d-1,口服,2周后渐减量至停药,应用泼尼松的总疗程为2个月。陈国利等[16]用此方法治疗50例患儿,ACTH治疗有效者32例(64.0%);完全缓解18例(36.0%)。2007年以后,为减少ACTH的不良反应,应用ACTH的方案更新为[14,17]:ACTH 1 U·kg-1·d-1,静脉注射,应用2周,若无效,则加量至25 U·d-1,再用2周;若有效,则维持原量再用2周,ACTH总疗程为4周,随后改用泼尼松,口服,用量及疗程同前。小剂量ACTH的疗效与2007年以前的方案相当,且不良反应发生率较低。
日本Ito 等[17]推荐方案:ACTH 0.2~0.59 U·kg-1·d-1,用1~4周后逐渐减停。短期内痉挛发作缓解率为75.0%(55/73例),长期随访痉挛发作缓解率为59.2%(32/54例),智力运动发育正常者占9.3%(5/54例)。Oguni等[13]报道31例IS患儿,予ACTH 0.2 U·kg-1·d-1治疗2周,其中17例(54.8%)痉挛发作及EEG高峰失律完全缓解;1例痉挛发作缓解,2例EEG高峰失律缓解;8例无效患儿ACTH加量至1.0 U·kg-1·d-1,再用2周,其中2/8例完全缓解。提示小剂量ACTH治疗IS同样可取得较好的疗效。
应用糖皮质激素治疗IS的方案也不尽相同。目前中国多采用泼尼松作为停用ACTH后的序贯治疗。可应用泼尼松1~3 mg·kg-1·d-1,每日或隔日分3次口服2周,以后10周内减量维持。Kossoff等[20]报道,口服泼尼松40~60 mg·d-1治疗15例IS患儿,10例在2周内痉挛发作控制,且价格便宜,不良反应发生率较低。Hancock等[21]通过12项小样本RCT(<60例)和2项大样本RCT(>100例),共观察了681例IS患儿,考察了9种不同的药物的疗效,研究显示高剂量泼尼松可有效控制痉挛发作,而且可能改善长期预后。Mytinger等[22]治疗105例IS患儿,应用甲泼尼龙20 mg·kg-1·d-1,静脉注射,连用3 d,之后口服泼尼松减量维持治疗2个月,治疗2~6 d有50%痉挛发作控制,研究指出静脉注射甲泼尼龙和(或)口服皮质类固醇可控制痉挛发作,且不良反应发生率较低。
ACTH的不良反应包括:高血压、感染、电解质紊乱、肾上腺皮质功能减退、下丘脑-垂体功能减退、骨质疏松、消化性溃疡、肥厚型心肌病、脑水肿、脑萎缩、硬膜下积液及硬膜下血肿等[23]。目前对肥厚型心肌病的认识仍不够,对发生高血压的患者应行超声心动图检查,有心血管不良反应者应减量。ATCH最危险的不良反应是肾上腺皮质功能减退,曾有肾上腺皮质功能减退合并严重电解质紊乱而死亡的病例报道。
降低ACTH不良反应发生率可采取以下措施:①采用最小的有效剂量和较短的疗程;②缓慢减量;③ACTH治疗结束后给予足量的皮质醇替代物。在使用ACTH治疗时每例患儿的不良反应不尽相同,应采取适当的预防措施。
1.2 维生素B6治疗 大剂量维生素B6治疗IS在日本应用较广泛,10%~30% IS患儿应用大剂量维生素B6治疗有效,其起效迅速,常在用药2周内起效,隐源性IS较症状性IS疗效好[5]。对于吡哆醇依赖症的患儿作为首选治疗。
维生素B6的应用剂量:有学者[24]采用20~30 mg·kg-1·d-1,依据治疗反应和耐受情况3~4 d 后加量至40~50 mg·kg-1·d-1,13.3%(6/45例)症状性IS患者痉挛发作完全控制[24];也有学者[25]应用100 mg·kg-1·d-1,分3次口服,6 d内加量至300 mg·kg-1·d-1,有效率为29.4%。
Miyajima 等[26]报道大剂量维生素B6(40~50 mg·kg-1·d-1)与小剂量ACTH(0.4 U·kg-1·d-1)联合治疗IS患儿17例,疗程1个月,取得良好效果,有效率为80%,患儿的智力发育较好。Imai等[27]报道维生素B6与丙戊酸联合治疗IS较单用丙戊酸疗效好。
维生素B6治疗IS机制尚不十分清楚,可能的机制为:维生素B6在体内转化为吡哆醛-5-磷酸,其作为辅酶在氨基酸的代谢中有许多作用。发育时期脑的GABA浓度很高。GABA由谷氨酸在谷氨酸脱羧酶的作用下合成,此反应中吡哆醛起辅酶作用,吡哆醇缺乏时,GABA水平降低,兴奋阈值降低,易发生惊厥,因此,维生素B6的应用可提高兴奋阈值,辅助控制发作。
维生素B6的不良反应较轻,可表现为:胃肠道症状(食欲差、呕吐、腹泻、腹胀和便秘)、肝功能异常、消化道出血、多发神经炎和感觉异常等; 减量或停药可减轻40%~70%消化道症状[5]。
唑尼沙胺不良反应包括:嗜睡、共济失调、食欲差、胃肠道反应、头晕、皮疹、意识障碍、体重下降和WBC降低,但均为一过性[29]。
1.4 氨己烯酸 自Chiron等首次应用氨己烯酸有效治疗难治性IS以来,目前尤其在欧洲国家,已将其作为治疗IS的一线药物[6,7]。隐源性IS疗效优于症状性IS,对于IS合并有结节性硬化者或有局灶性皮质损害者疗效较好。Granstrion等[7]推荐的方法:首剂量40~100 mg·kg-1·d-1,若10~14 d痉挛发作未控制,将剂量增至150 mg·kg-1·d-1,若仍有发作则加用ACTH,初始剂量为3~6 U·kg-1·d-1,肌内注射,2周后仍发作加量至6~12 U·kg-1·d-1或加用丙戊酸,氨己烯酸用至ACTH起效后的6个月至2年。Elterman等[30]纳入221例新诊断的IS患儿,随机分为氨己烯酸高剂量组(100~148 mg·kg-1·d-1)和低剂量组(18~36 mg·kg-1·d-1),用药14 d内行VEEG检查,高剂量组和低剂量组连续7 d痉挛发作停止者分别占15.9%和7.0%。报道指出氨己烯酸缓解痉挛发作迅速,不良反应小,呈剂量依赖性。
氨己烯酸的主要不良反应有嗜睡、多动。近年来发现应用该药可产生不可逆转的视野缺损(VFD),甚至在停用氨己烯酸后仍可出现。由于检查技术及检查时患儿不易配合等因素,婴幼儿VFD的报道很少,但潜在的VFD不良反应限制了其广泛使用[31,32]。近来有文献报道[33],动物实验发现VFD与应用氨己烯酸后引起牛磺酸缺乏导致的视网膜光毒性损伤有关,能否通过减少光线暴露和补充牛磺酸来降低VFD的发生,目前在研究中。
1.6 拉莫三嗪 拉莫三嗪通过抑制电位相关性Na+通道,稳定神经细胞膜,抑制脑内兴奋性氨基酸(谷氨酸、天冬氨酸)的释放而起作用。儿童单药治疗时初始剂量为2 mg·kg-1·d-1,分2次口服,2周后加量至5 mg·kg-1·d-1,2周后效果不好可继续缓慢加量,维持量为5~15 mg·kg-1·d-1[24]。若与丙戊酸合用,则初始剂量为0.2 mg·kg-1·d-1,每2周增加0.5 mg·kg-1·d-1,维持剂量1~5 mg·kg-1·d-1[40]。有文献报道在维生素B620~50 mg·kg-1·d-1治疗基础上,加用ACTH 0.4~0.6 U·kg-1·d-1,疗程2个月,与拉莫三嗪联合治疗IS患儿25例,拉莫三嗪起始剂量0.2 mg·kg-1·d-1,2周后增至0.5 mg·kg-1·d-1,第5周予1 mg·kg-1·d-1,分早晚2次口服,维持量5~10 mg·kg-1·d-1,用此方案治疗3个月时,22例患儿(88 .0%)的痉挛发作得到完全控制;随访6~30个月,平均(20±14.1)个月,9.1%(2/22例)患儿出现复发,无演变为其他类型发作者[41]。
拉莫三嗪的不良反应主要有困倦、皮疹、呕吐和发作频率增加,还有复视、共济失调、头痛、情绪障碍和攻击行为等。不良反应发生率与加量速度有关。为了减少皮疹的发生,推荐的加量方案是通过2个月的缓慢加量期达到最小治疗量。考虑到IS患儿需要尽快控制其痉挛发作,2个月的时间达到最小治疗量显然降低了拉莫三嗪对婴儿痉挛症的治疗价值[42]。
左乙拉西坦对IS有较好疗效及安全性[46,47]。Grosso等[47]报道17例IS患儿(隐源性7例,症状性10例)添加左乙拉西坦治疗,3例完全缓解,6例有效。Lawlor等[48]报道1例症状性IS患儿添加左乙拉西坦15 mg·kg-1·d-1达到完全缓解。Gumus等[49]报道5例IS患儿采用左乙拉西坦单药治疗,其中2例完全缓解,2例发作减少≥50%,1例无效,平均剂量为 50 mg·kg-1·d-1。Mikati等[40]报道添加左乙拉西坦治疗IS 7例,5例发作减少≥50%,其中2例发作减少≥75%。国内有多中心研究发现[50],左乙拉西坦治疗IS有效,起效剂量及完全缓解剂量较国外报道的低,且存在较大的个体差异,提出在中国应用左乙拉西坦治疗IS可从小剂量开始,以控制发作为治疗目标。
Eun等[54]回顾性分析了1995至2004年43例IS患儿生酮饮食治疗的资料,53.5%(23/43例)发作完全控制,62.8%(27/43例)发作减少> 90%,与EEG改善结果一致。Hong等[55]回顾性分析了1996至2009年104例IS患儿生酮饮食治疗的资料,平均年龄1.2岁,治疗6个月,64%发作减少,其中37%发作完全控制,35%EEG改善,29%同时应用AEDs的剂量减少。治疗1~2年77%发作减少。Kossoff 等[56]回顾性对比分析了13例应用生酮饮食和20例应用ACTH治疗的IS患儿,生酮饮食治疗1个月时61.5%(8/13例)发作控制,治疗2~5个月EEG改善;ACTH治疗1个月90%发作及EEG均改善。认为应用ACTH治疗的患儿EEG正常化更迅速,而生酮饮食对发作的控制与ACTH相当,不良反应少于ACTH。目前大多数学者认为生酮饮食治疗有费用低廉、风险小和疗效肯定等优点;缺点是麻烦,儿童正处于迅速发育阶段,应保证基本的蛋白质摄入量为1 g·kg-1·d-1,还必须保证热量供应;因配出来的饮食口味不佳,往往难于接受。
2 预后
Ito等[17]对98 例IS患儿随访2 年以上,发作完全缓解52.0%(51/98例),48.0%(47/98例)的IS患儿仍有发作。隐源性IS、发病年龄>3个月、病程<2个月、病初发作控制好及EEG恢复快患儿的发作预后较好,相反则预后差;而与ACTH 的每日剂量及总剂量无关。陈国利等[16]对53例IS患儿随访2年以上,发现临床发作预后与开始应用ACTH 治疗时的病程和近期疗效有关;与患儿的起病年龄和病因无关;病程≤2个月者、近期疗效好的患儿预后较好。Rijkonen[68]报道,IS患儿发作预后好的因素包括:病因不明,发病年龄>4个月,无非典型痉挛和部分性发作,无EEG异常不对称,短期治疗具有早期和持续的治疗反应。
2.2 智力和运动发育转归 多数IS患儿痉挛消失后,遗留不同程度智能缺陷和运动发育迟滞。IS预后不良,并非指痉挛发作本身,而是指其病死率和智能缺陷率较高。长期随访研究表明,在存活的IS患儿中,智能和运动发育恢复正常的患儿仅为7.7%~16.0%,而严重智能缺陷和运动发育迟滞率为34.5%~68.0%。王艺等[69]对127例IS患儿随访3年,86.6%的患儿(110例)伴智能发育异常。有研究发现隐源性IS患儿仅30%~50%存在智力落后,而症状性IS患儿80%~95%存在智力落后[70]。IS的病死率为5%~30%,约1/3的患儿在3岁前死亡,50%以上患儿<10岁死亡,常见死亡原因为感染及原发病所致[71]。
2.3 EEG转归 随患儿年龄增长,EEG异常程度逐渐节律化,高峰节律紊乱消失,代之以正常或其他类型异常EEG。痉挛发作终止后约2/3患儿EEG恢复正常。典型高峰节律紊乱EEG通常在5岁内消失,但EEG的改善并不一定伴随临床发作的改善。
2.4 影响预后的因素 主要包括:发病前神经系统检查及发育情况、病前有无其他发作形式、起病年龄、病程长短及早期是否有效控制痉挛发作。提示预后较好的因素为[72]:发病前神经系统检查及发育正常,病前无其他发作形式,起病年龄较大者,病程短和早期有效控制痉挛发作者。提示预后较差的因素为:大脑皮质发育异常、发病前智力运动发育落后者、症状性者、复发或抽搐持续存在者。
[1]Plecko B, Stockler S. Vitamin B6dependent seizures. Can J Neurol Sci, 2009,36(2):73-77
[2]Wang H(王华). Analysis of prognostic factors in infantile spasms. Chinese Journal of Practical Pediatrics(中国实用儿科杂志), 2009, 24(1): 20-21
[3]Wray CD, Benke TA. Effect of price increase of adrenocorticotropic hormone on treatment practices of infantile spasms. Pediatr Neurol, 2010, 43(3): 163-166
[4]Overby PJ, Kossoff EH.Treatment of infantile spasms. Curr Treat Options Neurol, 2006, 8(6): 457-464
[5]Tsuji T, Okumura A, Ozawa H, et al.Current treatment of West syndrome in Japan. J Child Neurol, 2007, 22(5): 560-564
[6]Riikonen R. A European perspective-comments on " Infantile spasms: a U.S. consensus report". Epilepsia, 2010, 51(10): 2215-2216
[7]Granstrom ML,Gaily E, Liukkonen E, et al. Treatment of infantile spasms: results of a population-based study with vigabatrin as the first drug for spasms. Epilepsia, 1999, 40(7): 950-957
[8]Peltzer B, Alonso WD, Porter BE. Topiramate and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) as initial treatment for infantile spasms. J Child Neurol, 2009, 24(4): 400-405
[9]Dressler A, Stocklin B, Reithofer E, et al. Long-term outcome and tolerability of the ketogenic diet in drug-resistant childhood epilepsy-the Austrian experience. Seizure, 2010, 19(7): 404-408
[10]Hattori A, Ando N, Hamaquchi K, et al. Short-duration ACTH therapy for cryptogenic West syndrome with better outcome. Pediatr Neurol, 2006, 35(6): 415-418
[11]Shu XM(束晓梅), Li J, Zhang GP, et al. A comparative study of conventional dose and low dose adrenocorticotrophic hormone therapy for West syndrome. Chinese Journal of Contemporary Pediatrics(中国当代儿科杂志), 2009, 11(6): 445-448
[12]Kondo Y, Okumura A, Watanabe K, et al. Comparison of two low dose ACTH therapies for West syndrome: their efficacy and side effect. Brain Dev, 2005, 27(5): 326-330
[13]Oquni H, Yanaqaki S, Havashi K, et al. Extremely low-dose ACTH step-up protocol for West syndrome: maximum therapeutic effect with minimal side effects. Brain Dev, 2006, 28(1): 8-13
[14]Heiskala H, Riikonen R, Santavuori P, et al.West syndrome: individualized ACTH therapy.Brain Dev,1996,18(6):456-460
[15]左启华,主编. 小儿神经系统疾病.北京:人民卫生出版社,第2版,2002.275-280
[16]Chen GL(陈国利), Zhang YH, Qin J, et al. The effect of ACTH in the treatment of infantile spasm and its influenced factors. Chinese Journal of Practical Pediatrics(中国实用儿科杂志), 2004, 19(7): 406-408
[17]Ito M, Aiba H, Hashimoto K, et al.Low-dose ACTH therapy for West syndrome: initial effects and long-term outcome.Neurology, 2002,58(1):110-114
[18]Zheng CY(郑承宇),Zhou ZS.Treatment progress of Infantile Spasms. Foreign Medical Pediatric Section(国外医学儿科学分册), 2002, 29(6): 301-303
[19]Brunson KL, Eghbal-Ahmadi M, Baram TZ.How do the many etiologies of West syndrome lead to excitability and seizures? The corticotropin releasing hormone excess hypothesis.Brain Dev, 2001,23(7):533-538
[20]Kossoff EH, Hartman AL, Rubenstein JE, et al. High-dose oral prednisolone for infantile spasms: an effective and less expensive alternative to ACTH. Epilepsy Behav, 2009, 14(4): 674-676
[21]Hancock EC, Osborne JP, Edwards SW. Treatment of infantile spasms. Database Syst Rev, 2008, 8(4): CD001770
[22]Mytinger JR, Quigg M, Taft WC, et al. Outcomes in treatment of infantile spasms with pulse methylprednisolone. J Child Neurol, 2010, 25(8): 948-953
[23]Partikian A, Mitchell WG. Major adverse events associated with treatment of infantile spasms. J Child Neurol, 2007, 22(12): 1360-1366
[24]Pietz J, Benninger C, Schaft H, et al. Treatment of infantile spasms with high-dosage vitamin B6. Epilepsia, 1993, 34(4): 757-763
[25]Toribe Y, Uede H, Suzuki Y, et al. An evaluation on efficacy and side effects of the massive vitamin B6 therapy against West syndrome. In: Mayanagy Y, Compiled. Program and abstracts of the 34th Annual Meeting of the Japan Epilepsy Society. No Tokyo, 2002, 99(2): 221-222
[26]Miyajima T, Ito M, Fujii T, et al. Seizure and developmental prognosis of West syndrome-combination therapy with high-dose vitamin B6, valproate and low-dose ACTH. No To Hattatsu, 2001, 33(6): 498-504
[27]Imai Y, Yoshinaqa H, Ishizaki Y, et al. Reappraisal of vitamin B6therapy for West syndrome. No To Hattatsu, 2009, 41(6): 457-461
[28]Yum MS, Ko TS. Zonisamide in West syndrome: an open label study. Epileptic Disord, 2009, 11(4): 339-344
[29]Lee YJ, Kang HC, Seo JH, et,al. Efficacy and tolerability of adjunctive therapy with zonisamide in childhood intractable epilepsy. Brain Dev, 2010, 32(3): 208-212
[30]Elterman RD, Shields WD, Bittman RM, et al. Vigabatrin for the treatment of infantile spasms: final report of a randomized trial. J Child Neurol, 2010, 25(11): 1340-1347
[31]Willmore LJ,AbelsonMB, Ben-Menachem E,et al.Vigabatrin: 2008 updete. Epilepsia, 2009, 50(2): 163-173
[32]Jaseja H. Justification of vigabatrin administration in West syndrome patients? Warranting a reconsideration for improvement in their quality of life. Clin Neurol Neurosurg, 2009, 111(2): 111-114
[33]Jammoul F, Wang Q, Nabbout R, et al.Taurine deficiency is a cause of vigabatrin-induced retinal phototoxicity. Ann Neurol, 2009, 65(1): 98-107
[34]Zou LP. Effects of topiramate on immunological fuction in patients with West syndrome. Brain Dev, 2002, 24: 504
[35]Meng XY(孟小英), Zhou LP, Shong SA. Effects of topiramate on immunological function in patients with West syndrome. Apoplexy and Nervous Diseases(中风与神经疾病杂志), 2002, 19(3): 157-158
[36]Hosain SA, Merchant S, Solomon GE, et al. Topiramete for thetreatmant of infantile spasmas. J Child Neurol, 2006, 21(1): 17-19
[37]Glouser TA, Clark PO, Mcgee K. Long-term response to topiramate in patients with West syndrome. Epilepsia, 2000, 41(S1): 91-94
[38]Han LX(韩彤立), Zhou LP, Ding CH, et al. Effects of topiramate in the treatment of infantile spasms and the follow-up observation. Chinese Journal of Practical Pediatrics(中国实用儿科杂志), 2002, 17(9): 556-557
[39]Rudolf K, Andreas S. Topiramate in children with west syndrome:a retrospective multicenter evaluation of 100 patients. J Child Neurol, 2007, 22(3): 302-306
[40]Mikati MA, EI Banna D, Sinno D, et al. Response of infantile spasms to levetiracetam. Neurology, 2008, 70(7): 574-575
[41]Zhou W(周伟), Pu SX, Li QP. Effect of small doses of cortrosyn depot combination with vitamin B6and lamotrigine in the treatment of infantile. Chinese Journal of Practical Pediatrics(中国实用儿科杂志), 2001, 16(7): 423-425
[42]Peng J(彭镜), Yin F, Wu L. Efficacy and safety of levetiracetam for patientswith west syndrome refractory to adrenocorticotrophic hormone treatment. Journal of Applied Clinical Pediatrics(实用儿科临床杂志), 2010, 25(12): 940-942
[43]Wang XY(王学禹), Li MX. Levetiracetam in the treatment of epilepsy application progress. Shandong Medical(山东医药), 2008, 48(11): 110-111
[44]Gillard M, Chatelain P, Fuks B. Binding characteristics of llevetiracetam to synaptic vesicle protein 2A(SV2A) in human brain and in CHO cells expressing the human recombinant protein. Eur J Pharmacol, 2006, 536(1-2): 102-108
[45]Otoul C, de Smedt H, Stockis A. Lack of pharmacokinetic interaction of leveteracetam on carbamazepine,valproic acid, topiramate, and lamotrigine in children with epilepsy. Epilepsy, 2007, 48(11): 2111-2115
[46]Heo K, Lee BI, Yi SD, et al. Efficacy and safety of levetiracetam as adjunctive treatment of refractory partial seizures in a multicentre openlabel single-arm trial in Korean patients. Seizure, 2007, 16(5): 402-409
[47]Grosso S, Cordelli DM, Franzoni E, et al. Efficacy and safety of levetiracetam in infants and young children with refractory epilepsy. Seizure, 2007, 16(4): 345-350
[48]Lawlor KM, Devlin AM. Leveteracetam in the treatment of infantile spasms. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2005, 9(1): 19-22
[49]Gumus H, Kumandas S, Per H. Levetiracetam monotherapy in newly diagnosed cryptogenic West syndrome. Pediatr Neurol, 2007, 37(5): 350-353
[50]Huang YL(黄亚玲), Xu SQ, Liu JH, et al. Curative effect of levetiracetam for infantile spasms. Journal of Applied Clinical Pediatrics(实用儿科临床杂志), 2008, 23(24): 1919-1920
[51]Freeman JM, Kossoff EH. Ketosis and the ketogenic diet, 2010: advances in treating epilepsy and other disorders. Adv Pediatr, 2010, 57(1): 315-329
[52]Hartman AL. Does the effectiveness of the ketogenic diet in different epilepsies yield insights into its mechanisms? Epilepsia, 2008, 49(8): 53-56
[53]Huffman J, Kossoff EH.State of the ketogenic diet(s) in epilepsy.Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep,2006,6(4):332-340
[54]Eun SH, Kang HC, Kim DW, et al. Ketogenic diet for treatment of infantile spasms. Brain Dev, 2006, 28(9): 566-571
[55]Hong AM, Turner Z, Hamdy RF, et al. Infantile spasms treated with the ketogenic diet: prospective single-center experience in 104 consecutive infants. Epilepsia, 2010, 51(8): 1403-1407
[56]Kossoff EH, Hedderick EF, Turner Z, et al. A case-control evaluation of the ketogenic diet versus ACTH for new-onset infantile spasms. Epilepsia, 2008, 49(9): 1504-1509
[57]Shields WD, Shewmon DA, Chugani HT, et al. Treatment of infantile spasm: medical of surgical? Epilepsia, 1992, 33(4): 26-31
[58]Asano E, Chugani DC, Juhasz C, et al. Surgical treatment of West syndrome. Brain Dev, 2001, 23(7): 668-676
[59]Asanuma H, Wakai S, Tanaka T, et al. Brain tumors associated with infantile spasms. Pediatr Neurol, 1995, 12(4): 361-364
[60]Chugani HT, Shewmon DA, Shields WD, et al. Surgery for intractable infantile spasms: neuroimaging perspectives. Epilepsia, 1993, 34(4): 764-771
[61]Kang HC, Hwang YS, Park JC, et al. Clinical and electroencephalographic features of infantile spasms associated with malformations of cortical development. Pediatr Neurosurg, 2006, 42(1): 20-27
[62]Wyllie E, Comair YG, Kotagal P, et al. Seizure outcome after epilepsy surgery in children and adolescents. Ann Neurol, 1998, 44(5): 740-748
[63]Bittar RG, Rosenfele JV, Klug GL, et al. Resective surgery in infants and young children with intractable epilepsy. J Clin Neurosci, 2002, 9(2): 142-146
[64]Asarnow RF, Lopresti C, Guthrie D, et al. Developmental outcomes in children receiving resection surgeryfor medically intractable infantile spasms. Dev Med Child Neurol, 1997, 39(7): 430-440
[65]Ye QH(叶强华), Zheng XF, Wang F. Advanced research of infantile spasms. Chin J Obstet Gynecol Pediatr(中华妇幼临床医学杂志), 2010, 6(1): 72-75
[66]Medicine, Seoul, Korea. Factors influencing the evolution of West syndrome to Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Pediatr Neurol, 2009, 41(2): 111-113
[67]Engel JJ.A proposed diagnostic scheme for people with epileptic seizures and with epilepsy: report of the ILAE Task Force on Classification and Terminology.Epilepsia, 2001,42(6):796-803
[68]Rijkonen RS. Favourable prognostic factors with infantile spasms. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2010, 14(1): 13-18
[69]Wang Y(王艺), Chen W, Qie PL, et al. Clinical diagnosis and treatment of infantile spasms and prognostic analysis of 127 cases. Chin J Pract Pediatr(中国实用儿科杂志), 2006, 21(3): 191-193
[70]Sidenvall R, Eeg-Olofsson O.Epidemiology of infantile spasms in Sweden.Epilepsia, 1995,36(6):572-574
[71]Riikonen R. Long-term outcome of West syndrome: a study of adults with a history of infantile spasms. Epilepsia, 1996, 37(4): 367-372
[72]Haga Y, Watanabe K, Negoro T, et al.Do ictal, clinical, and electroencephalographic features predict outcome in West syndrome?Pediatr Neurol, 1995,13(3):226-229